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RtMn\A/MPn Dl M r-oo ^r- ^ Copyright. 1900, by George W. Bertron.

KtNUWNED RULERS OF THE CENTURY

BM(fHM\Mmin!miIIIBlfflmn«lHI«,,n,nn„,

YOUNG PEOPLE'S

HISTORY OF THE WORLD

CONTAINING

Complete andThrilling Accounts

OF THE

Heroes of History

AND THEIR

Marvelous Achievements

INCLUDING

GREAT BATTLES AND CONQUESTS; THE RISE AND FALL OF NATIONS

WONDERFUL GROWTH AND PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES;

FAMOUS EXPLORATIONS, DISCOVERIES, ETC., Etc.

By Henry Davenport Northrop

Author of "Gem Cyclopedia of Universal Knowledge," "Queen of Republics," Etc., Etc.

Superbly Embellished with a Great Number of
Phototype and Line Engravings

National Publishing Company

235 to 243 SOUTH AMERICAN ST.
PHILADELPHIA, PA.

two Copies rfecBivcii

JUL 21 1905
coPt a-

,3^

N

feHTERBO *CCO«0.NO TO ACT or COMORES8. .N THB V.A^ 1«<«. BV

HORACE C. FRY

M TMB OFFICE OF THE

LIBRARIAN OF CONGRE88, AT WASHINGTON

D. C U'l "• *•

PREFACE.

(sfX' FUIvL and glowing account of the world's wonderful events is
^^ contained in this most instructive and entertaining volume,
embracing whatever in history is sublime and glorious. It
treats not only of our own great countrj^, but of European and other
countries, ignorance of which goes far toward branding one as an
ignoramus.

It has often been said that the history of Scotland is full of romance.
Something bright and beautiful, or sanguinary and tragic, is written on
every page. The very glens echo the heroic deeds of the past. The
shaded lakes are mirrors of cloud and sky. But this land of ours is
quite as full of interest as any land beyond the sea, and many are the
fields that have their tragic tale to tell of heroism and adventure. In the
great struggle for human freedom we have patriots whose noble deeds are
themes for splendid epics.

Great explorations and discoveries are depicted in this volume, and
the daring men who fought their way through dark regions and terrible
dangers are commemorated and made immortal. Voyages in the Polar
world, and thrilling explorations in the Dark Continent, together wath
journeys in other lands, are here described in a manner so captivating
that all readers are entranced. There is always a charm about deeds of
heroism. They rouse the spirit of emulation ; they inspire the young to
grand effort and achievement ; they live in memory when less noble deeds
are forgotten, and any volume, put into the hands of the young, that
fires tliem with aspiration, has a value that cannot be estimated.

Famous wars and battles are recorded in this very attractive volume.

It throbs with the struggles of nations, and across its pages \vave the

tossing plumes of the great battle heroes. Can the world ever forget the

sri.ci.v.L. iii

iv PREFACE.

brilliant career of Napoleon, or Wellington, or Lord Nelson, the hero of
the sea ? Can the name of onr own great Washington ever cease to adorn
the pages of history? The conflicts of the Revolution, of the war of
1812, and the more recent records of grim and ghastly battles — can these
ever be eliminated from the marvelous story of modern times ? From
the plains of Austerlitz and Waterloo down to the famous victories of
Manila, Santiago, and the hard-fought battles in South Africa, the reader
views the bloody drama of war and hears the booming of guns that pro-
nounce the downfall of Emperors and Nations.

We live in an age of wonderful activity, discovery and invention.
Our young people should be familiar with the amazing progress the world
is making, and this volume, replete with useful information, is an edu-
cator that they cannot afford to be without. It is the latest contribution
to universal knowledge. It deserves a place in every home. And what
better gift can parents make to the young than to furnish them with
books that are simply storehouses of learning, and will teach them those
grand and inspiring lessons that history affords ?

CONTENTS.

PART I.

GREAT EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD

CHAPTER I.

THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE.

Purchase of Louisiana— Napoleon Threatening Great Britain — Piratical States
OF Barbary— Jefferson Re-elected— Treason of Aaron Burr— Blow to Ameri-
can Commerce— Trouble with Great Britain— Arbitrary Decree of Napoleon
—Importation of Slaves Forbidden —Robert Fulton's First Steamboat — ^Thf
"Clermont" Makes a Voyage from New York to Albany — Sailing Vessels
Superceded by Steam — Fulton the First Great Inventor of the Century . 17

CHAPTER II.

OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN.

James Madison in the White House— England's Big Fleet— Gen. Hull Fortifies
Detroit — Base Surrender of the Detroit Garrison — Sharp Battle at Queens-
town on THE Canada Border — Brilliant Exploits of Our Navy — Invasion op
Canada — Important Events Connected with the War — Some of the Indian
Tribes Take up Arms— The Peace Commission of 1813 — Great American Vic-
tory ON Lake Champlain— The British Repulsed in Many Engagements— Orig-
inal Text of the "Star Spangled Banner" — Hartford Convention — War
Ended — Indiana Brought into the Union 26

CHAPTER III.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS.

losEPH Smith, Founder of the Sect — The Book of Mormon— Prominent Mormons
Swear Falsely — The Book a Historical Romance— Smith Tarred and Feath-
ered—Removal TO Nauvoo— Smith Shot Dead by a Mob — Mormon Temple Db
stroyed by Fire— Mormons Move Again and Found Salt Lake City — Outrages
by Armed Mormons— Mountain Meadows Massacre —Federal Troops Sent to
Utah -John D. Lee Convicted and Executed for the Mountain Valley Mas-
sacre-Death OF Brigham Young— Polygamy Suppressed by the Government 42

CHAPTER IV.

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

People from Connecticut Settle in Texas— Moses Austin Obtains a Grant frov
the Spanish Government — Large Immigration Pours into Texas— Austin Ar-
rested and Imprisoned -Santa Anna in Power — His Troops Driven Out of
Texas— Davy Crockett — Mexican Army Routed— Texas a Republic in 1837 —
Movement in Congress for the Annexation of Texas — Proposition Resisted
bv Mexico — Bloody Battles Between the Mexican and American Armies —
Achievements of General Taylor— General Scott's Expedition— Our Arms
Everywhere Victorious — Return of Peace on the 4TH of July, 1848 ... 51

vj CONTENXa

CHAPTER V.

THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

A.GITATION UPON THE QUESTION OP SlAVERV—ThE MISSOURI COMPROMISE — STRUGGLE IN

Kansas in 1854— Democratic Party Divided— Election of Abraham Lincoln
TO the Presidency— The South Asserts State Sovereignty— Appalling State
of Affairs — Many Southern States Secede from the Union— Outbreak of
THE War — Major Anderson Attacked at Fort Sumter— Confederate Plan to
Destroy Commerce— First Great Battle— Slaves Declared "Contraband of
War" — Federal Expeditions to Recapture Southern Harbors— Confederates
Seek Recognition Abroad— War of Vast Magnitude — General Grant in the
VVest — Terrible Battles and Many Federal Defeats— Fight Between the
Merrimac and the Cumberland— " Stonewall Jackson" — General McClellan's
Advance— The Capital Threatened c . . . 67

CHAPTER VI.

END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

Hard Fighting in Tennessee— Capture of Fort Pulaski — Slavery Question ai
the Front— Lincoln Threatens to Free the Slaves— Battles of Chancel-
lorsville— Grant's Victory at Vicksburg— Federals Victorious in Great Bat-
tle AT Gettysburg — Riots in New York —Generals Thomas and Bragg — Gen
ERAL Longstreet Wounded— Grant Made Commander-in-Chief— Terrible Fight-
ing in the Wilderness— General Sherman's Great March to the Sea — Lincoln
Elected to a Second Term— Lee's Situation Desperate— End of the Great
Struggle — Assassination of President Lincoln — Death of the Assassins . 82

CHAPTER VII.

FROM THE RESTORATION OF THE UNION TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN.

Opening of the Union Pacific Railway — Our Government Insists upon Great
Britain Allowing Damages for Captures by Confederate Cruisers- Court of
Arbitration — Great Fire in Chicago — Loss Amounts to 1196,000,000— Discon-
tent in Cuba — Seizure of the Virginius and Execution of Her Crew— Demands
OF Our Government upon Spain — Peace Commissioners Murdered by Modoc
Indians-— Assassins Followed and Shot or Hanged— Centennial Exhibition of
1876 — Imposing Ceremonies at Its Opening — Garfield Inaugurated President —
President Garfield Shot by an Assassin — General Arthur Becomes President
— Discovery of Gold in Alaska— Prosperity in 1898 and Following Years . 01

CHAPTER VIII.

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

Cuba's Struggle for Freedom — Destruction of the Battleship Maine— Message to
Congress from the President — Outbreak of War with Spain— Admiral Dewey's
Great Victory at Manila — Young Heroes of the War — United States Army
Landed in Cuba — Exploits of the " Rough Riders " — Battles of San Juan and
El Caney — Admiral Cervera's Fleet Destroyed by American.Squadron Under
Command of Commodore Schley — United States Army Landed in Porto Rico-
Capture OF the City of Manila — Peace Commissioners Appointed by the
United States and Spain— Negotiations for Peace— Peace Treaty Signed by
THE Two Governments— Bloody Conflicts with the Insurgents in the Philip-
pines—Great Naval Spectacle in New York Harbor— Sword for Admiral
Dewky — Magnificent Reception to Dewey on His Return . ...... US

CONTENTS. Vii

PART 11.

EUROPEAN AND OTHER COUNTRIES.

CHAPTER IX.

GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY.

PAGE

French Defeated in Egypt— British Naval Victory at Copenhagen— William Pitt
IN Power, 1804- Napoleon Determines to Invade England— Great Naval Vic-
tory OF THE English Fleet at Trafalgar— Napoleon's Brilliant Successes-
Battles of Austerlitz and Jena— The "Iron Doke"— Alliance Against Napo-
leon—Ireland Independent— George IV. Comes to the Throne— O'Connell in
Parliament— William IV. on the Throne -Victoria Inaugurated Queen in 1838
-Anti-Ccrim-Law League— War Between Russia and Allied Armies of England
AND France— Desperate Struggle in the Crimea— Franchise Extended in
England— Public School System— Mutiny in India— Punishment of Traitors-
Struggle OF the Irish for Home Rule— The Queen's Jubilee in 1897 IK

CHAPTER X.

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Splendid Triumphs of Napoleon— His Arbitrary Power— Empire Practically Im-
CLUDiNG Half of Europe— Defeat of French Navy by Lord Nelson— Emperor
Retires to Elba— Reappearance in France and Defeat at Waterloo— Charles
X. on the Throne— Trouble in Algiers— Troops Driven from Paris— Eng-
land's Bold Move— Death of Heir Apparent in 1842— The King Abdicates—
France a Republic— President Napoleon III. Afterward Becomes Emperor-
Political Agitation and Troubles— French and English Alliance Against
Russia— Fall of Sebastopol— France Sends an Expedition to Mexico -Maxi-
milian Captured and Shot— Scheme to Annex Belgium— Outbreak of \^^ar with
Prussia— French Armies Defeated and Downfall of Napoleon III.— Escape op
Empress Eugenie from Paris— End of the War Famous Dreyfus Trial .... 143

CHAPTER XI.

THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE.

'.iERMANV Agitated by Napoleon's Schemes at the Beginning of the Century-
German Confederation— New Government Organized— Insurrection Suppressed
— Austria and Prussia— War with Austria and Great German Victory — The
Treatv of Prague — New Territory Incorporated— Union of German States-
France Proclaims War Against Prussia — Battles of Gravelotte and Sedan —
Empire of Prussia Under William L— Laws for the Working Classfs— Prussia
AND THE Papacy— National A"kMY— Death of Emperor William I. — Death of
Emperor Frederick— William II. Comes to the Throne— Prince Bismarck . . 163

CHAPTER XII.

GREAT EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA.

Fmperor Paul Murdered in 1801— Russian Loss in the Battle of Austerlitz- Coa-
lition WITH France— War with Persia — Powerful Alliance — Cabinet Officer
Charged with Treason — Russia Victorious over Persia — Russia Signs the
Treaty of London in 1827— Polish Insurrection in 1831— War against Eng-
land AND France in 1853 — Bloody Battles in the Crimea— Emancipation of

nil CONTENTS.

THE Serfs in i86i — Russia Assists Slavonic Christians against the Turks —
Dismemberment of Bulgaria — Attempts on the Life of the Emperor- Czar.
Alexander Crowned in 1883 — Emperor of Germany Visits the Czar in 1888 —
Peace Conference at The Hague in 1899 Called by the Czar of Russia. . . 173

CHAPTER XIII.

iAi'IONS OF NORTHERN EUROPE— DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

Denmark's Wise Ruler— Ascendency of Napoleon— Danish Fleet Surrenders to
the British — Norway Ceded to Sweden — Monarchy in Danger — Danish Posses-
sions Defined — Popular Discontent — Conflict with Prussia — Danish Victory
Followed by Peace with Prussia — Demant^s made upon Denmark — Heroic
Courage of the Danes -Sweden in the Nineteenth Century — Norway At-
tacked BY GusTAvus— Finland Ceded to Russia— Sweden and Norway United. IM

CHAPTER XIV.

NATIONS OF SOUTHERN EUROPE— ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

Revolution and Conspiracies in Italy — Massacre in Milan — Mazzini's Attempt tc>
Establish a Republic in Rome— Revolution a Failure — Garibaldi and His
Volunteers— Rome Emancipated by the Liberator — United Italy a Great
Continental Power — Greece in the Nineteenth Century— War for Independ-
ence IN 1821— Turks Defeated by the Greeks— Civil War — Turkish Fleet An-
itihilated in 1827 — President Assassinated Iin 1831 — Italy Under Protection
OF Three Great Powers— War Between Greece and Turkey in 1897 — Turkey
in the Nineteenth Century — Conflicts with the Greeks — Crete and Syria —
Turke\ Bankrupt — Massacre of Christians — Demands of the United States
upon Turkey — Spain in the Nineteenth Century — Revolution in 1820 — Royal
Marriages— Uprising of the Carlists — Spain a Republic — Spain again a Mon-
,rchy— War with the United States in 1898 19J

CHAPTiiR XV.

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

jpPER AND Lower Canada— Internal Dissension in the Early Part of the Century
— Canadian Rebellion — Defective System of Government — Invasion of Canada
BY the Fenians — Confederation of 1867— Dominion of Canada — Purchase op
Territory — Vast Wealth of Moines in British Columbia and Elsewhere— Mexico
IN the Nineteenth Century — Popular Discontent — Regency Established in
1822 — President Overthrown— Disorder and Violence — Succession of Revolu-
tions—The French in Mexico— Execution of Maximilian — South America in
the Nineteenth Century — History of Peru— History of Chili— United States
OF Colombia — British Guiana — Bolivia and Argentine Republic 214

CHAPTER XVi,

ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

China and Japan— Privileges Granted by Ch^na to British East India Company —
Famous Opium War — China's Disregard of Treaties - Great Rebellion - Cold
Blooded Massacre of Europeans — War Between China and Japan— Great
Hattle of Yalu— Japan in* the Nineteenth Century — The Yankees of the
'2ast — Admission of Foreign Vessels to Japanese Ports — Radical Changes in
THE Government -Feudal System Destroyed— Adopting New Ideas— Republics
IN South Africa — President Kruger and the Transvaal — War Between the
British anp the Boers ...,-, . 23*

CONTENTS. ix

PART III.

FAMOUS EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES.

CHAPTER XVII.
VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

PAGE

Captain John Ross — Doctor Rae's Discoveries — Story of Sir John Franklin— Ex-
pedition Sent for His Relief— Death of Franklin and His Party — Discovery
of Northwest Passage — Many Expeditions Sent to the Polar World — Doctor
Kane and Lieutenant DeLong in the North — Captain Nare's Expedition —
Voyage of Lieutenant Greely — Doctor Nanson in Greenland — Expedition
BY Lieutenant Peary of the United States Navy — Futile Attempt to Reach
THE Pole in a Balloon by Andree 247

CHAPTER XVIII.
LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN CENTRAL AFRICA.
Brave Old Missionary— His Start for Zanzibar— Plunges into Wild and Inhospi-
table Regions— Picturesque African Scenery — An Unbounded Forest — Remark-
able Travels by Stanley — Adventure with an Elephant — In Dai/ger of a
Massacre — A Frightened Negro — Great Freshet in the River— Arrival at
Bagamoyo 265

CHAPTER XIX.

STANLEY'S GREAT JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

How Stanley Found Livingstone— Determines to Explore Africa— First Stage of
His Journey — Many Adventures — Hostile Natives — Invitation from a King-
Fantastic Parade — Big War-Boat — Famous TipO'-^ipo —The Terrible Dwarfs —
Passing THE Rapids— Mutiny in Camp— Deserted by the Guides — Stanley's Ex-
pedition IN Terrible Straits — His Successful Journey Across Africa— Return
TO England and the United States — Public Honors for the Great Explorer-
Feted IN England and America — Remarkable Success of One of the Greatest
Expeditions on Record 276

CHAPTER XX.

TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES OF VAMBERY IN CENTRAL ASIA.

The Modern Capital of Persia — Shrines of Moslem Saints— Groves of Orange
AND Lemon Trees— Verdant Plains on Every Side— Caravan in Great Peril —
The Route Lost— Warm Reception for Vambery— Travelling in a Fertile
Country— Scarcity of Water— City of Bokhara - A Strange Traveller— Car-
avan Shut Out of the City — Dazzling Eastern Splendor— The Emirs Parade
— " Mother of Cities " — The Traveller's Means Exhausted— Welcome from a
Prince 298

part IV.

GREAT WARS AND BATTLES.

CHAPTER XXI.

DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO.

Extraordinary Military Genius — Immense Array of Forces for a Great Battle
—Chain of Fortresses on the Belgian Frontier— Wellington in Command of

content:^

f»am

THE AtLrED Army — Blucher with 80,000 Men — Blucher Attacked and Defeated
BY Napoleon — The Emperor Decides to Give Battle — Choosing Position for
THE Great Struggle — Disposition of Troops on Each Side — Armies Face to
Face— Terrific Cannonade—Disgraceful Panic — Heroic Defense— Charge on
British Centre— The "Iron Duke" at the Front — Ney's Superb Bravery —
Veterans Hurled Back — Magnificent Charge of the Old Guard — "Nine
Deadly Hours" — Waterloo Compared with Gettysburg ..,.,,. ^ ,.■ • 310

CHAPTER XXII.

DB.OISIVE BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA.

Striking Figure of Napoleon— French Host Crosses the Rhine— Guard Driven
Back — Daring Strategy — An Impregnable Fortress— Setting a Trap — Match-
less Marshal Murat — Napoleons Strategy -Dashing Cavalry Charge— Rus-
sians Hurled Back— A Bloody Struggle — Valor was in Vain — Fierce Battle
OF Jena— Napoleon in the Ranks— Terrific Combat — Two Gallant Charges —
Scene of Carnage— Thousands of Bloody Swords— Napoleon at Jena — The
Emperor Caring for the Wounded on the Field 328

CHAPTER XXIII.

BRILLIANT VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON

Famous Battle of Lake Erie — Strong Array of English Ships— Brisk Firing —
Hand to Hand Combat— Rousing Cheers— Perry Leaving His Ship and Cross
ing to Another in an Open Boat — British Vessels Trying to Escape — Heavy
Casualties -Glory for the American Navy — Battle of New Orleans— Formid
ABLE British Fleet — American Forces Commanded by "Old Hickory" — Bril-
liant Fighting on Both Sides — British Valor and Fortitude— British Advance
Slow and Wearisome — Americans Behind Cotton Bales — British Infantry
Hurled Back— Fatal Errors — A Withering Fire — Desperate Assault by the
British — Death of the British Commander and Victory for the Americans-
Battle Fought Before News of Peace Reached the Combatants — ^Jackson the
Hero of the Hour 352

CHAPTER XXIV.

GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG.

Three Days Fight that Turned the Tide of War— General Lee's Successes in
THE South— Bold Attempt to Invade the North — Two Gallant Commanders —
General Meade's Plan of Battle— How the Fight Began^Death of the Gal-
lant Reynolds— Thunder of Artillery— Mad Rush of Federals — Heavy Cav-
alry Battle— Lee's Hopes Fatally Shattered — Brilliant Repulse of Pickett's
Brigade — Crisis Battle of the Great Civil War — Lee and the Confederates
IN Retreat— Union Successes all Along the Line 378

CHAPTER XXV.

BATTLE OF INKERMAN AND CAPTURE OF THE MALAKOFF,

British Pluck and Courage — A Slow Siege— Great Russian Host — Daring Bravery
of the French Army — Russian Prince on the Field of Conflict Russian CoL'
umn Shattered— Reserves Brought into Action — Fierce Fighting on Botk
Sides— Critical Moment of the Battle— Invincible Strength of the Allied
Forces Heavy Russian Losses — Awaiting the Final Attack - Outpost Taken
ft.ND Retaken — Fall of the Citadel — One of the Longest Sieges in History
Ended — Results of the Long-Continued Struggle 390

CONTENTS. xi

CHAPTER XXVI.

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE AT SEDAN.

PACi

1'hree Armies on the Field - German Host of More Than a Million Men —
Emperor William and Napoleon III.— Von Moltke's Trap for the Mouse-
Women IN THE Fight — French Scattered — Fierce Assaults by the Germans —
A Field of Slaughter — Grand Cavalry Charge— French Hurled Back — Brave
Marshal McMahon Wounded— White Flag Goes Up — Furious Artillery Fire —
Meeting OF THE Two Emperors— A Sealed Letter — William to Napoleon — The
Frenchman's Reply — Loud Huzzas Greet the King— Terms of Surrender —
Downfall of the French Empire 408

CHAPTER XXVII.

AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN.

Colonel Roosevelt, Assistant Secretary of the Navy — Admiral Dewey Sent to
Asiatic Waters— American Fleet Sails from Hong Kong — Harbor of Manila
the Scene of the Great Naval Battle — Relative Strength of the Combat-
ants—The Battle Opens at Daybreak — Terrible Fire of the American Guns-
Deadly Aim of' Skilled Artillerymen — Destruction of Admiral Montojo's
Flagship- Great American Naval Victory — War in Cuba — Military Operations
Around Santiago — Rough Riders in Battle— Exploits of the Regulars— Brav-
ery of the Volunteers — Spaniards Driven Back upon Santiago -Admiral Cer-
VERA Attempts to Escape from the Harbor of Santiago— His Vessels De-
stroyed— Another Great American Victory 426

CHAPTER XXVIII.

WAR BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND THE BOERS.

Difficulties of Long Standing Between England and the South African Repub-
lic—War Threatened — Ultimatum of the Boers to Great Britain— Outbreak
OF Hostilities— Battles in Northern Natal— Capture of General Cronje and
His Force — British Army at Bloemfontein — A Costly Struggle 435

CHAPTER XXIX.

WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN.

Beginning of Hostilities — Movements of the Japanese Fleet — Repulse of the
Russians— Explosion of a Magazine— Attacks on Port Arthur — A Three Days'
Battle — Desperate Fighting Immense Losses on Both Sides— Great Battle
OF LiAU Yang — Frightful Sl.\ughter — Fighting Around Mukden — Results of
the Battle — Warships Bombarded — Downfall of Port Arthur — Great Suffer-
ing in the Fortress 437

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PART I.
GREAT EVENTS

IN

The History of the World.

CHAPTER I.
The Louisiana Purchase.

(*) I HE Revolution, which resulted in
* I the irdependence of the United
States, was ended by the sur-
render of Lord Cornwallis and his army
of 7,000 men at Yorktown, Va., on Oc-
tober ipth^ 1 78 1. The patriots who had
won the great struggle then united their
efforts in the formation of a new gov-
ernment and a Constitution in line with
the principles so boldly asserted in the
Declaration of Independence. In 1787
the new Constitution was signed by a
convention of the States and was ratified
during the following year.

The new government was organized
by the election of George Washington
as President. As we glance back at
that stormy period in our history his
majestic figure stands out as the chief
of the illustrious founders of our Re-
public. After twice administering the
affairs of the government he died De-
cember 14th, 1799. His honored name,
embalmed in the hearts of his country-
men, is destined to be venerated so long
as our nation endures. One of his distin-
guished compatriots, Benjamin Frank-
lin, whose important services form some
of the brightest pages of our early his-
tory, ended his illtistrious career on
April 17th, 1790.
2

The administration of John Adams,
second President, closed on Marcf 4th,
i8oi, and on the same date he was suc-
ceeded by Thomas Jefferson, au'^hor of
the "Immortal Declaration." Aaron
Burr, regarded by many af only a
clever adventurer, was indicted into
the office of Vice-President- The new
administration made Was)\mgton the
seat of government, the c^ipitol having
been removed to that ci"y during the
preceding year.

The Purchase of Louisiana.

The new chief magistrate was soon
involved in a transaction of very great
importance. Intelligence was received
that Napoleon had extorted from Spain
the cession of Louisiana, granting in
compensation the succession of the
Duke of Parma, a Spanish prince, to
the grand-duchy of Tuscany. That
court had, however, yielded with much
reluctance, and only from being over-
awed by the superior power of France.
This intelligence excited great alarm
in the American cabinet.

The possession of this territory by
Spain, a weak and sluggish power, had
been sufficiently harassing; what then
might be expected on its transference

27

18

ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON.

CO the most stirring and active nation
in Europe? Jefferson, knowing the
French government to be embarrassed as
to funds, conceived the hope, that, for
a large sum, they might be induced to
part with the territory; and, viewing
the object as of the deepest importance,
he was disposed not to be sparing in
the amount.

A (jrreat Possession.

lyivingston, Pinckney, and Monroe
were appointed a commission for carry-
ing on this delicate negotiation. On
arriving at Paris, they found their re-
publican profession in bad odor with
Napoleon, who, having determined to
establish absolute power, regarded them
with dislike as demagogues and anar-
chists. They did not scruple to obviate
this by declaring that they ccnsidered
the present system the most desirable
for France after her severe recent agi-
tations. They found the acquisition of
Louisiana disapproved in the political
circles, yet a favorite object with Na-
poleon himself He looked to it as a
great colonial possession, which might
rival those of England ; as a new Egypt
— a place of reward for meritorious
officers, and of exile for those he sus-
pected.

Mr. King, the ambassador to E:^g-
land, endeavored to stir that court
against it ; but though dissatisfaction
was expressed, no right was there felt
to interfere. An expedition of five to
seven thousand men was prepared, and
Bernadotte appointed to command it.
As, however, Napoleon began to con-
template hostile relations with Britain,
./is mind opened to the American pro-
posals. He could not hope to maintain
this transatlantic possession against her

superior navy ; while a large sum of
money would be extremely convenient.
King, indeed, was warned by Mr. Add-
ington, that the British goverment
would, in that event, take possession of
the country.

This was a new ground of alarm ;
but he gave assurance, that they sought
only to keep it from France, and would
be quite satisfied with its acquisition by
the United States. As hostilities be-
came certain, Napoleon began seriously
to negotiate on the subject. The treaty
had been opened only with respect to
New Orleans, and the territory west of
the Mississippi ; but he intended that
the eastern must also be included,
which, indeed, by itself could be of lit-
tle value to him. This proposal being
unexpected, the envoys were unpro-
vided with any instructions ; yet, rightly
appreciating the great advantage of
possessing both banks, they readily con-
sented—a conduct highly approved by
the President.

Worth Much More than the Cost.

After a good deal of discussion, the
price was fixed at sixty millions of
francs, 1 2, 500,000 dollars, and the States
were besides to pay twenty millions of
francs, 4,000,000 dollars, of indemnity
for injurious captures ; making in al
16,500,000 dollars. The sum, though
considerable, bore little proportion to
the vast advantages which have since
been reaped from the acquisition.

Jefferson, although gratified by this
arrangement, felt a good deal embar-
rassed in laying it before Congress. No
power to conclude such a treaty was con-
veyed by the Constitution, and he was
one who specially deprecated the gen-
eral government going a step beyond its

ADMINISTRATION OF PRESluiiNT JEFFERSON.

19

assigned functions. Congress, however,
with the exception of a small minority,
showed too much satisfaction at the
event to be at all disposed to criticise its
legality. Spain only, who still held
possession of tlie country, and had cer-
tainly been treated with very little cer-
emony, made a strong remonstrance,
that she had ceded it under the engage-
ment of its never being alienated, and
that the terms even had not been strictly
fulfilled. She gave in afterwards a sol-
emn protest to the same efifect.

The American government turned a
deaf ear to such representations, and
even prepared to assert the claim by
arms. Napoleon, on hearing of this
dispute, intimated, that unless the
Spanish government yielded, he would
join America in compulsory measures.
This was enough for that court, who,
on the loth of February, 1804, intima-
ted, through her minister, Don Pedro
Cevallos, that her opposition was with-
drawn.

American Prisoners at Tripoli.

Public attention "'as now called to
another subject, which had long caused
uneasiness and irritation. The piratical
states of Barbary, whose career had
hitherto encountered no serious check,
had been committing extensive depre-
dations on American commerce. They
had even intimated an intention not to
discontinue them without a tribute, to
which the nation was little inclined.
As Tripoli had been particularly active.
Commodore Preble, in 1803, was sent
against it with a fleet of seven sail.

On his arrival, Captain Bainbridge,
with the frigate Philadelphia, was em-
ployed to reconnoitre the harbor ; but
proceeding too far, his vessel grounded,

and fell into the hands of the enemy.
He and his crew were made prisoners,
and treated with the usual barbarity.

The expedition was thus at a full
stand, when Captain Eaton, consul at
Tunis, intimated that the throne of
Tripoli was disputed by Hamet Cara-
malli, a brother of the bashaw who had
found refuge and been well received in
Egypt. He proposed and was permit-
ted to join this prince, commanding the
co-operation of the fleet. Eaton soon
obtained Hamet's concurrence, and,
early in 1805, was invested with the
command of a body of troops which the
latter had succeeded in raising.

"My Head or Yours."

He marched across the desert of Mar-
morica, summoned tlie frontier fortress
of Derne, and, though the commander
made the defying reply, ' ' My head or
yours," overpowered him after a few
hours of desperate fighting. On Ma}-
8th, the reigning bashaw came up with
a strong force, and attempted to recover
the place, but was repulsed ; and on
June loth he sustained another defeat.
Immediately after, the American fleet
was reinforced by the frigate Constitu-
tion. While affairs thus wore a trium-
phant aspect, and the capital was in
alarm of immediate attack. Colonel
Lear, the consul, thought it most pru-
dent to listen to overtures from the
enemy and conclude a peace. It com-
prehended the delivery of the prisoners
on both sides ; there being a balance of
two hundred in favor of the bashaw, for
which sixty thousand dollars were to be
paid. All co-operation was to be with-
drawn from Hamet, in whose favor it
was only stipulated, that his wife anc
children should be released.

'20

ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON

That prince made loud complaints,
under which Jefferson evidently felt
considerable uneasiness. He urged, in-
deed, that no pledge had been given for
his restoration to power ; and that his
force, though so far successful, was not
adequate to that achievement. Con-
certed movements may take place
against a common enemy without any
mutual guarantee of each other's ob-
jects ; yet, where both have effectively
co-operated, each seemingly may claim
a share of the advantage ; and that of
Hamet, on the present occasion, ap-
peared exceedingly slender.

Jefferson Re-elected.

In the end of 1804, Jefferson's first
term of office expired. His conduct
having been altogether approved, and
the democratic spirit being still pre-
dominant, he was re-elected by one
lumdred and sixty- two votes out of one
hundred and seventy-six. Burr, who
had disgusted the ruling party by his
conduct at the last election, was thrown
out, and Clinton of New York, a Dem-
ocrat so decided that he had even op-
posed the formation of the Union, was
elected in his place. ■«^

Burr, disappointed in this quarter,
sought compensation by standing as can-
didate for governor of New York. He
was supported by a large body of the
Federals ; but Hamilton, a man of high
and honorable mind, despising him as a
reckless adventurer, opposed and de-
feated his election. The disappointed
candidate, taking advantage of some
violent language said to have been used
by his opponent, sent him a challenge.
The parties met, and at the first fire
Hamilton fell. No event ever excited
a more general feeling of regret through-

out the States, where, in the party most
adverse to him, his high bearing, splen-
did talents, and political consistency,
commanded general respect.

Burr, however, restlessly sought some
means of attaining distinction and
power. In September and October,
1806, Jefferson learned that mysterious
operations were proceeding along the
Ohio ; boats preparing, stores of provis-
ions collecting, and a number of suspi-
cious characters in movement. A con-
fidential agent sent to the spot warned
the President that Burr was the prime
mover ; and General Wilkinson, who
commanded near New Orleans, intima-
ted that propositions of a daring and
dangerous import had been transmitted
to him by that personage.

Burr's Treasonable Plot.

The ostensible pretext was, the set-
tlement of a tract of country said to
have been purchased on the Washita, a
tributary of the Mississippi ; but the
various preparations, the engagement
for six months only, the provision of
muskets and bayonets, pointed to some-
thing altogether distinct. It was either
the formation of the western territory
into a separate government, or an ex-
pedition against Mexico, sought to be
justified by a boundary difference that
had arisen with Spain, whose troops
had actually crossed the Sabine.

The former project, if entertained,
was given up, no encouragement bein^
found in the disposition of the peo-
ple ; and Burr's views were then con-
fined to the seizure of New Orleans, and
collecting there as large a force as pos-
sible for his ulterior design. His par-
tisans abstained from all violence, and
made their designs known only by

ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON.

21

mysterious conversations ; so that, on
being apprehended and brought to trial
in Kentucky, he obtained a verdict of
acquittal. The governor of Ohio, how-
ever, seized a quantity of boats and
stores ; and strict watch was kept along
the whole line.

Burr was only able, on the 25tli of
December, to assemble at the mouth of
the Cumberland river, from sixty to a
hundred men, with whom he sailed
down the Mississippi. General Wilkin-
son had been instructed to settle the
Spanish difference as soon as possible,
and direct all his attention to securing
New Orleans, and suppressing this ert-
terprise. Burr, therefore, finding no
support in the country, was unable to
resist the force prepared against him ;
his followers dispersed, and he him-
self, endeavoring to escape, was arrest-
ed on his way to Mobile. He was
tried on a charge of treason ; but
the chief justice was of opinion that,
though Blanerhasset, his coadjutor, had
openly announced the project of at-
tempting the separation of the States,
there was not sufficient proof that
Burr himself contemplated more than
the Mexican expedition, which amount-
ed only to the levying of war against
a power with whom the country was
at peace.

Believed to be Guilty.

He was thus acquitted of the main
charge ; yet Jefferson expressed himself
as much dissatisfied with the sentence,
declaring his conviction of Burr's guilt
in every particular. The acquittal ap-
peared to him to have been prompted
by that ultra-federal spirit with which
he always charged the Supreme Court.
Bnrr went to Europe, and never again

appeared on the political theatre of the
States.

About this time arose discussions
that led to a long series of troubles.
The contest which had arisen between
France and England spread over the
Continent, and was attended, on the
part of Napoleon, with such signal tri-
umphs, as rendered him virtually its
master. But, while all Europe bent
beneath his sway, he was goaded to
madness by seeing Britain stand erect
and defiant, while not a vessel could
leave one of his own ports withou*
almost a certainty of capture.

A struggle now ensued, very different
from that hitherto waged between Euro-
pean kingdoms, when some exterior
provinces or appendages only w^re dis
puted. It was a question of empire on
one side and existence on the other ;
and each party thought itself entitled
to employ extreme means, and to pass
the limits hitherto sanctioned by the
practice and public law of Europe.

Struggle Between Giants.

Napoleon, viewing his mighty rival
as resting solely upon commerce, imag
ined, that if he could exclude her mer-
chandise entirely from the Continent,
the root of her power would wither,
and she would fall an easy victim. His
adversary, on the other hand, conceived
the hope, that by depriving the coun
tries under his sway of all the benefits
of trade, a spirit of discontent would be
roused that might prove fatal to his
dominion. Both parties inflicted on
themselves and on each other severe
sufferings ; and the hopes of both proved
finally abortive. Britain remained mis-
tress of the seas, and Europe still lay at
tlie feet of Napoleon. Yet each uerse-

22

ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON.

vered, in the hope that the desired
result was in silent operation, and that
by a continuance of effective means it
tnight at last arrive.

America had at first derived extraor-
Jinary advantages from this warlike
attitude of Europe. The most active,
and finally almost the only maritime
neutral power, she had reaped a rich
harvest by engaging in the commerce
between the ports of the belligerent
states, and kept an extensive shipping
employed in this carrying trade.

Blow at American Commerce ,

But a severe reverse was felt under
these new measures, when her vessels
could not appear in any of the seas of [
Europe without being liable to capture
by one nation or the other. The proc-
lamations ofboth were equally rigorous ;
but Britain possessed so much more
means of carrying hers into execution,
that they were the most severely felt.

Another grievance was endured from
the same quarter. The great extension
of the American shipping interest of-
fered ample employment to British sea-
men, who, by entering this service,
obtained higher wages and escaped the
hardship of serving by impressment in
ships of war. Britain therefore claimed
and exercised the right of searching
American vessels for these deserters,
and, whenever grounds of suspicion ap-
peared, of calling upon them for proofs
of American origin. She contended
that the desertion, if unchecked, would
proceed on so vast a scale, that the navy,
her grand means of defence, would be
entirely crippled.

The other party complained, that not
only was the national flag thus violated,
but American citizens were, under this

pretext, seized and carried to distanl
ports, where they could not procure
proofs of their origin, and those ac
tually produced were not duly regarded.
In a report to Congress, it is stated,
that the number impressed since the
beginning of the war had been four
thousand two hundred and twenty-
eight, of whom nine hundred and
thirty-six had been discharged. It was
alleged, that by far the greater propor-
tion of these were native Americans,
and that in six hundred and ninety-
seven recent cases, only twenty-three
were British and one hundred and five
doubtful ; but to these statements it
seems impossible not to demur.

The first encroachment on the liberty
of commerce was directed against the
transportation of the produce of the
French West Indies to the mother
country.

Trouble with Great Britain.

It was maintained by Britain, that
the Americans, having been formerly
excluded from this employment, and
admitted to it only in consequence of
the war, could not complain of losing
a branch which they had never enjoyed :
while they urged, that the war had
conferred on Britain no new right to
interpose. They entertained hopes of
gaining their object in consequence of
Mr. Fox's accession to power, in 1806.
That statesman even told Monroe,
then ambassador, that he had ordered'
the practice of impressment to be sus-
pended, but was not prepared to yield
up the right.

Jefferson, encouraged by this intelli-
gence, added Pinckney to the embassy,
with the view of concluding a final
arrangement. On his arrival, however,

ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON.

23

Fox had been siezed with that illness
which terminated in his death. The
commission were received by Lord
Grenville, to whom the subject was
new, and who was pressed by the duties
of other departments. Soon however,
lyords Holland and Auckland, being
named commissioners to carry on
the negotiations, expressed the most
conciliatory disposition, but stated,
that as all the law oflEicers were in favor
of the right of impressment, it could
not be formally conceded, but would be
exercised with greatest caution.

Agreed to Sign the Treaty.

The Americans finding more was
unattainable, while terms that appeared
satisfactory could be secured on other
subjects, at length agreed to sign the
treaty. On its being transmitted to Jef-
ferson, however, he at once determined
on refusing to ratify it, without even
the usual course of submitting it to the
Senate. This, he conceived, when his
own mind was completely made up,
would have been an empty form. He,
therefore, sent it back, with instructions
that an attempt should be made to ob-
tain at least a partial abolition, and also
stating modifications which he consid-
ered necessary in several of the other ar-
ticles. He continued the same negoti-
ators, and did everything in his power
to soothe Monroe, hitherto his favorite
diplomatist, who could but feel deeply
wounded on this occasion.

The estrangement caused by this step
was aggravated by a tragical incident.
Admiral Berkeley, then commanding
British vessels on our coast, having
learned that several men belonging to
his squadron were on board the United
States frigate Chesapeake, gave direc-

tions for their seizure by Captain
Humphreys, of the Leopard. That
officer came up to the American vessel
soon after it had sailed from Hampton
Roads, Virginia, and sent a boat's crew
on board, asking permission to search
for the British deserters ; Barron, the
commander, replied, that he could not
allow his men to be mustered by any
other than himself The boat returned,
when a fire was opened from the Leop-
ard, which the American, being totally
unprepared for, was unable to return.
In the course of twenty or thirty min-
utes, he endeavored to fit his vessel for
action, but not having succeeded, and
three of his men being killed and
eighteen wounded, he struck his flag.

Offered to Give up his Ship.

To a British officer, who came on
board, he offered his vessel as a prize ;
but the other disclaimed any such view,
and delived a letter from Humphreys,
deploring a loss which might have been
avoided by amicable adjustment. He
then took out four men, three of whom
were alleged to be Americans, and de-
parted. Berkeley had committed a gross
error in authorizing such a proceeding
against a government armed vessel, re-
specting which the right of search had
never been claimed. A loud and general
clamor, in which all parties joined, was
raised throughout the country ; and
Jeflferson issued a proclamation, exclud-
ing British ships of war from all the
waters of the United States.

The English foreign secretary disa-
vowed the action of Captain Humplireys
offered reparation, and recalled Admiral
Berkeley. England, however, would
not give up the right of search, but
instructed her officers to use no unnec-

24

ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON.

essary violence in enforcing it. The
reparation promised was never made.

Affairs in Europe, meantime, were
assuming a still more serious aspect.
Napoleon, after his victory at Jena, and
entry into Berlin, which placed him in
a most triumphant position on the con-
tinent, became still more eager to crush
the only power that still defied him.
In November, 1 806, he issued a decree,
declaring the British isles in a state of
blockade ; this was retalliated by . an
order in council on January 2, 1807,
prohibiting the trade by neutrals from
any port under his sway to another.

Napoleon Enraged.

On the nth of November, a fresh
order declared, that all these countries
were to be considered in a state of block-
ade ; but some mitigations were after-
wards admitted in regard to vessels
willing to trade through the British
ports, after paying a certain duty.
These terms, however, were repelled by
America, as a levying of tribute, and as
altogether inconsistent with the inde-
pendence of her flag. Enraged at this
farther measure. Napoleon, on Decem-
ber 17, 1807, issued at Milan, another
decree, subjecting to confiscation every
vessel which should have submitted to
the conditions imposed by England.

America was thus placed certainly in
a hard situation, being unable to send
out a vessel to sea, which was not liable
to capture by either belligerent. She
might have been fully justified in im-
posing severe restrictions on the ship-
ping and commerce of the offending
parties ; but instead of this, Jefferson
proposed and was supported by his
part}' in carrying the measure of an em-
bargo, to be laid for an indefinite period

on all our vessels within the ports of
America, by which they were prohib-
ited from departing for any foreign
port.

This step was marked by the singular
fact that it was carried by the interior
and agricultural States, against the most
violent opposition from the northern
and commercial ones, though the latter
were almost the exclusive sufferers.
They were told, indeed, that the object
was to procure for them redress, and
that their vessels, thus detained in port,
would be saved from capture and con-
fiscation. They thought, however, that
they might have been consulted as to
their own interests, and not have had a
remedy imposed which was deemed by
them ten times worse than the evil.
The embargo was repealed in 1809, but
commercial intercourse was forbidden
with England and France.

Slave Trade Abolished.

Besides the acquisition of the great
Louisiana territory, Mr. Jefferson's ad-
ministration is memorable for the ex-
tinction of the African slave trade, the
importation of slaves having been for-
bidden bylaw in 1808. The policy was
then first introduced of purchasing from
the diminishing Indian tribes the lands
which they claimed, and removing the
Indians to special districts, or " reserva-
tions," set apart for them. In this way
large tracts of territory were gained from
the scattered tribes both north and south
of the Ohio.

Thus it will be seen that within a
period of twenty-five years from the
close of the Revolutionary War our
country was again agitated and dis-
turbed, and there were ominous mutter-
ings of war both England and with

ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON.

25

Fiance Mr, Jefiferson, who was not
without suspicion of sometimes favoring
measures for political eflfect, resisted
with all the powerful resources of his
mind and with his commanding influ-
ence the aggressions of Great Britain.
From the succeeding pages the reader
will learn that the statements already
made are but preliminary to the second

present, iSlever did a flag have more
enthusiastic or ardent defenders than
the Stars and Stripes.

In the year 1807 a great change was
made in the system of navigation by
Robert Fulton, a native of Pennsylva-
nia, who built and successfully uaviga-
ted the first steamboat. He named it
the " Clermont," and made the voyage

ROBE;rT FULTON'S

conflict between the United States and
Great Britain. A people who at such sac-
rifice and cost of blood had gained their
independence were not in a mood to tol-
erate any violation of their lawful rights.
it should be noted that in the early
period of our history the true American
spirit was born — born in conflict and
the shock of battle — and has character-
ized our nation from that time to the

FIRST STEAMBOAT.

from New York to Albany, a distance
of about one hundred and fifty miles, in
thirty-six hours. From this time steam
navigation rapidly superseded the old
system of sailing vessels in the waters
of the United States and exercised a
powerful influence in the development
of the wealth and prosperity of the
country. Fulton's was the first great
invention of the century.

CHAPTER II.

Our Second War with Great Britain.

(5 I HE most important events in our
* I country's history during the
early part of the century were
connected with what is commonly called
the war of 18 12. James Madison, hav-
ing served one term as President, was
inaugurated for a second term on the
4th of March, 181 3. War against Great
Britain had been declared on the i8th
of June before, and was then going on.
At the time the war was declared, the
prevailing idea was that England was to
be brought to terms by the seizure of her
neighboring provinces on the northern
boundary of the United States. This
was the only vital point at which it was
expected that the United States could
deal telling blows. I^ittle or nothing
was expected from any contest on the
ocean. The United States navy, of less
than thirty frigates and sloops-of-war
in commission, even with the new ad-
ditions ordered, could not, it was sup-
posed, cope with England's fleets of a
thousand sail. All that was expected
of these was to aid the gun-boats in
coast defence, and in preventing a land
invasion; while they might, also, in
conjunction with privateers put in com-
mission, cripple the enemy to some ex-
tent by the destruction of their com-
merce on the high seas.

But the capture of the Canadas was
looked upon as an easy prize. It was
with this view that the army was organ-
ized, and active preparations made.
The chief command of all the forces
was assigned to General Henry Dear-
born, of Massachusetts. His position
was to be on the eastern end of the line ;
26

the forces on the west end were assigned
to General William Hull, then Gover-,
nor of Michigan ; those in the centre,
or middle, of the line, were assigned to
General Stephen Van Renssalaer. They
were all to co-operate in their move-
ments, with a view to Montreal as an
ultimate objective point.

Detroit Fortified.

On this line of policy. General Hull
had, early in July, 181 2, concentrated
an army of about 2,500 at Detroit. On
the 1 2th of that month he crossed over
and took possession of the village of
Sandwich. Here he issued a very
famous proclamation, and remained un-
til the 8th of August, when upon hear-
ing that Fort Mackinaw, on the river
above Detroit, had been taken by the
British and Indians, he recrossed the
river and again took position at Detroit.
A few days after this. General Brock,
Governor of Upper Canada, who had
called out a force, took his position at
Maiden. On the 15th of August he
erected batteries on the opposite side of
the river, but in such position as to
bring the town of Detroit within the
range of his guns, and demanded of
Hull a surrender of the place.

Colonel McArthur and Colonel Lewis
Cass had been sent off on detached ser-
vice, with a small force, on the river
Raisin, a few days before, by Genera]
Hull. Captain Bush, of the Ohio vol-
unteers, had also, with a small force,
been sent off on similar detached ser-
vice. These detachments were recalled
by (^eueral Hull on the 15th. Qn the

OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN

27

i6th General Brock commenced cross-
ing the river with his forces, three miles
below the position occupied by General
Hull.

When the British had advanced with-
in about five hundred yards of Hull's
line, to their surprise they saw the dis-
play of a white flag. An officer rode
up to inquire the cause. It was a sig-
nal for a parley. A correspondence was
opened between the commanding gen-
erals, which speedily terminated in a
capitulation on the part of Hull. The
fortress of Detroit, with the garrisons
and munitions of war, were surren-
dered. The forces under Cass and Mc-
Arthur, and other troops at the river
Raisin, were included in the surrender.
Captain Bush, however, not consider-
ing himself bound by Hull's engage-
ment, broke up his camp and retreated
towards Ohio.

A Base Surrender.

The army surrendered by General
Hull amounted to 2,500 men. General
Brock's entire command consisted of
about 700 British and Canadians, with
600 Indians. This unaccountable con-
duct of Hull filled the whole country
with indignation. As soon as he was
exchanged, he was brought to trial by
court-martial. He was charged with
treason, cowardice, and neglect of duty,
but found guilty only of the two latter
charges. He was sentenced to be shot,
but his life was spared in consideration
of gallant services in his younger days.

By the surrender of Hull, the whole
Northwestern frontier was exposed, not
only to British invasion, but Indian
depredations of the most savage char-
acter. Great alarm spread throughout
*U the neighboring States. Not less

than ten thousand volunteers tendered
their services to the government for
defence. These were accepted and
placed under command of General Wil-
liam Henry Harrison, who had suc-
ceeded Hull.

Battle of Queenstown.

After Hull's disaster. General Van
Rensselaer, who had command, accord-
ing to the original plan, of the centre of
the invading line, made a movement
over the Canada border. His forces
consisted of regulars and militia, and
were assembled at Lewistown, on the
Niagara river. On the opposite side
was Queenstown, a fortified British post.
This was the first object of his attack.
On the 13th of October, he sent a de-
tachment of a thousand men over the
river, who succeeded in landing under
a heavy fire from the British. The
troops were led to the assault of the
fortress by Colonels Christie and Scott.

They succeeded in capturing it. Gen-
eral Brock came up with a reinforcement
of six hundred men, and made a desper-
ate effort to regain the fort, but was de-
feated, and lost his life in the engage-
ment. General Van Rensselaer was now
at Queenstown, and returned to carry
over reinforcements, but his troops re-
fused to obey the order. Soon after,
another British reinforcement was ral-
lied, which recaptured the fort after a
bloody engagement, in which the greater
part of the thousand men who had first
taken it were killed. General Van
Rensselaer immediately resigned.

The command of the army of the
centre was then assigned to General
Alexander Smyth. He was soon at the
head of an army of four thousand five
hundred men. On the 28th of No-

28

OUR SECOND WAR WirH GREAT BRITAIN.

vember he was ready to move. That
was the day fixed for crossing the river.
The troops were embarked, but the
enemy appearing on the opposite side
in considerable force and battle array, a
council of war was held, which resulted
in a recall of the troops in motion, and
a postponement of the enterprise till the
ist of December. On that day another
council of war was held, at which the
invasion from that quarter was indefi-
nitely postponed. General Smyth in
turn immediately resigned. So ended
the third and last attempt at an inva-
sion of Canada, during the fall and
winter of 1812.

Exploits of the Navy.

While the military operations on land,
from which so much had been expected,
bore so gloomy an aspect, quite as much
to the surprise as to the joy of the coun-
try, the exploits of the gallant little
navy, in its operations on sea, from
which very little had been looked for
or hoped for, were sending in the most
cheering tidings.

These may be thus stated : First. —
On the 19th of August, 181 2, three days
after the disastrous surrender of Detroit
by General William Hull, of the army,
a most brilliant victory was achieved off
the Gulf of St. I/awrence, by Captain
Isaac Hull, of the Uni.ted States frigate
Constitution, and coming up with the
British man-of-war Guerriere, under the
command of Captain Dacres, at the time
and place stated, an engagement imme-
diately ensued. The fight was a des-
perate one, and lasted for some time.
But the result was the triumph of Hull
and his gallant men. Dacres surren-
dered ; but the Guerriere was too much
disabled to be brought into port, and

was blown up at sea. The loss of the
Constitution in men was seven killed
and seven wounded ; the loss of the
Guerriere was fifty killed and sixty-four
wounded ; among the latter was Cap-
tain Dacres himself

About the same time. Captain Porter,
in command of the United States fri-
gate Essex, met and captured the Brit-
ish sloop-of-war Alert, after an action of
only eight minutes.

Second. On the i8th of October,
Captain Jones, in command of the Uni-
ted States sloop-of-war Wasp, of eigh-
teen guns, met and captured the British
sloop-of-war Frolic, of twenty-two guns,
after a hard-fought battle of forty-five
minutes, losing but eight men, while
the loss of his enemy, in a vessel one-
third his superior, was eighty men.

Capture of a British Frigate.

Third. On the 25tli of October, Cap-
tain Decatur, in command of the frigate
United States, of forty-four guns, met
and captured the British frigate Mace-
donian, mounting forty-nine guns and
manned by three hundred men. The
action continued an hour and a half.
The loss of the Macedonian was thirty-
six killed and sixty-eight wounded;
while the loss on the United States was
only seven killed and five wounded.
The Macedonian was brought into New
York, and the gallant Decatur, who,
when lieutenant, had so signally dis-
tinguished himself at Tripoli, was wel-
comed with the applause and honors
which he had so nobly won.

Fottrth. 0\\ the 29th of December
the Constitution, familiarly called by
the sailors Old Ironsides, then in com-
mand of Commodore Bainbridge, had
another encounter at sea. This was

88

30

OUR *^ECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN.

with the British frigate Java, of thirty-
eight guns. The action was fought off
San Salvador, and lasted three hours.
The Java was dismasted and reduced to
a wreck, losing one hundred and sixty-
one killed and wounded, while the loss
of the Constitution in killed and
wounded was but thirty-four.

Fifth. In addition to these victories
of the public vessels, United States
privateers, fitted out under letters of

to the time of Mr. Madison's inaugu-
ration for a second Presidential term.
Soon after this, on the 8th of March,
1813, the Russian Minister at Washing-
ton, Mr. Daschcoff, communicated to
the President of the United States an
offer from the Emperor Alexander oni
his mediation between the United
States and Great Britain, with a view
to bring about peace between them.
Mr. Madison promptly and formally

marque, succeeded in severely distress-
ing the enemy's commerce, capturing
about five hundred of their merchant-
men and taking three thousand prison-
ers during the first seven months of the
war. England, as Napoleon had pre-
dicted, had found an enemy which was
ably contesting her supremacy as mis-
tress of the sea.

Such was the aspect of afi'airs on
land and sea in the progress of war un

THE WASP HOARDING THE FROLIC.

accepted the Russian mediation, and
appointed Mr. Gallatin, John Qnincv
Adams and James A. Bayard, commis-
sioners to negotiate a treaty of peacf
with Great Britain, under the auspices
of the tendered mediation. Messrs.
Gallatin and Bayard soon set out on
the mission to join Mr. Adams at St.
Petersburg, where he was then resident
Minister of the United States. The
British Government declined the medi-

OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN.

31

ation, and nothing came of this com-
mission.

The first session of the Thirteenth
"Congress met on the 24th of May, 181 3.
The principal business of this Congress
was to provide means to carry on the
war and sustain the public credit.
Direct taxes and excises were again re-
sorted to. The expenditures of the
v/ar had greatly exceeded the estimates.
New loans had to be made and pro-
vided for. The public finances were
in a state of much embarrassment;
treasury notes issued according to act
of Congress were at a great discount;
the loans authorized by the Govern-
ment were paid in depreciated currency ;
all the banks in the Union had sus
pended specie payments, except some
in the New England States. Proper
arms and clothing for the militia when
called into the field were both wanting.
Already the war spirit was beginning
to abate in several quarters, especially
in New England.

Canada Invaded.

Still the invasion of Canada was the
leading object of the administration.
The campaign planned for this purpose
in 18 1 3 was similar to that of 18 12.
The operations extended along the
whole northern frontier of the United
States. The army of the West, under
General Harrison, was stationed at the
head of Lake Erie; that at the east
end of the line, under the command of
General Hampton, on the shore of Lake
Champlain; while that of the centre,
under Dearborn, the commander-in-
chief, was placed between the Lakes
Ontario and Erie.

The result of this campaign, in view
of its main object, the conquest of

Canada, was very little more successful
than that of the year before. There
were many movements and counter-
movements of forces, advances, retreats
and sieges, with some pitched battles,
in which great valor was displayed, but
no one of them was attended with any
decisive results.

Noted Events.

The most noted events of this cam-
paign may be thus briefly stated : First.
^\\^ slaughter of the United States
prisoners at French town, in Canada, on
the 22nd of January, 181 3. Colonel
Proctor, the British officer to whom
General Winchester had surrendered a
force of several hundred men, in viola-
tion of his pledge, turned the prisoners
over to the vengeance of the Indians;
or at least did not restrain his allies,
the savages, in their most atrocious
acts of barbarity upon their unarmed
victims.

Second. The battle of York, or To-
ronto, in Upper Canada, on the 27th of
April, in which the young and gallant
United States officer. General Zebulon
M. Pike, was killed. He expired in
the hour of victory. TJiird. The siege
of Fort Meigs by Proctor, and its suc-
cessful defence by Harrison in the
month of May. Fourth. The subse-
quent siege of Fort Sandusky by Proctor
in the same month, and its like gallant
defence by Major Croghan. Fifth. The
battle of Sackett's Harbor on the 29th
of May, in which the British General
Prevost was signally repulsed. Sixth.
The capture on the same day of the
British Fort George by the United
States troops. Ser'enth. The battle of
Lake Erie, fought on the loth of Sep-
tember. This was a naval engage-

32

OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN.

ment, planned and executed by Com-
modore Perry. Its results stand briefly
chronicled in his report of it to General
Harrison in these words : "We have
met the enemy, and they are ours ! —
two ships, two brigs, one schooner and
one sloop."

Eighth. The battle of the Thames,
as it is called, fought by Harrison on
the 5th of October, and in which he
gained a complete victory. It was in
this battle that the famous Indian war-
rior Tecumseh was killed by the hands
of Colonel R. M. Johnson, of Ken-
tucky. Soon after this General Harri-
son resigned his commission and re-
tired from the service. General Dear-
born had previously resigned, when the
chief command had been conferred
upon General James Wilkinson.

Indians in Arms.

Meanwhile the Creek Indians in Geor-
gia and Alabania had taken up arms.
On the 30th of August they had sur-
prised Fort Minis on the Chattahoochee
river, and massacred nearly three hun-
dred persons, men, women and children.
The militia of Georgia and Tennessee
were called out. Those of Georgia were
under the command of General John
Floyd ; the whole were under the direc-
tion of Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee,
with the commission of Major- General.
Floyd had two engagements with the
enemy ; one at Callabee, the other at
Autossee. Both were successful. The
Indian town of Autossee was burned by
him on the 29th of November. A de-
tachment of the Tennessee forces, under
General Coffee, had an engagement at
Tallusahatchee on the 3d of November,
in which two hundred Indians were
killed. His success was complete. On

the 8th of November the battle of Tal-
ladega was foyght under the immediate
direction of Jackson himself. This was
another complete victory.

Completely Defeated.

Soon after, another fight was had at
Emuckfau, with a like result. The
Indians rallied again, and made their
last stand at a place known as " The
Horseshoe Bend," or, as they called it,
" Tohopeka," on the Tallapoosa river.
Here they were completel}' crushed by
Jackson in his great victory of the 27tli
of March following. A treaty of peace
with them was soon after made. The
speech of their chief warrior and prophet
Witherford, on the occasion of his sur-
render to General Jackson, and as re-
ported by him at the time, der-^^rves
perpetuation.

"I am," said he, "in your power.
Do with me as you please. [ am a sol-
dier. I have done the white people all
the harm I could. I have fought them,
and fought them bravely. If I had an
army, I would yet fight, and crjutend to
the last. But I have none. My people
are all gone. I can now do no more than
weep over the misfortunes of my nation.
Once I could animate my warriors to
battle ; but I cannot animate the dead.
My warriors can no longer hear my
voice. Their bones are at Talladega,
Tallusahatchee, Emuckfau, and Toho-
peka. I have not surrendered myself
thoughtlessly. Whilst there were any
chances for success, I never left my post,
nor supplicated peace. But my people
are gone ; and I now ask it for my na-
tion and for myself."

The operations on the sea in 18 13
continued, upon the whole, to add lustre
to the infant navy of the United States.

34

OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN.

The most noted of these, the successful
as well as the adverse, were as follows :
First. Captain lyawrence, of the
United States sloop-of-war Hornet,
on the 24th of February, met and cap-
tured the British brig Peacock, in a
conflict that lasted only fifteen minutes.
The Peacock, in striking her colors,
displayed, at the same time, a signal of
distress. Captain Lawrence made the
greatest exertions to save her crew, but
she went down before all of them could
be gotten off, carrying with her three
brave and generous United States sea-
men, who were extending their aid.

A Famous Victory.

Second. On the ist of June, the British
frigate Shannon captured the United
States frigate Chesapeake. The
Chesapeake at this time was in the
command of Lawrence. Every officer
on board of her was eitlier killed or
wounded. Lawrence, as he was carried
below, weltering in blood, and just
before expiring, issued his last heroic
order — " Don'' t give up the ship J- ' But
the fortunes of battle decided otherwise.

Third. The British met another like
success on the 14th of August, in the
capture of the United States brig
Argus, by the Pelican. The

Argus had carried Mr. Crawford,
United States Minister, to France, in the
month of May ; after which she made a
orilliant cruise, capturing more than
twenty of the enemy's ships, when she
was in turn captured, as stated. Her
colors, however, were not struck in
her last engagement, until Captain
Allen, in command, had fallen mortally
wounded.

Fourth. In September the United
States brig Enterprise met the

British brig Boxer, on the coast ti
Maine, and after an engagement of foi ty
minutes the Boxer surrendered. The
commanders of both vessels fell in the
action, and were buried beside each
other in Portland, with military honors.

Fifth. During the summer Commo-
dore Porter, of the frigate Essex
after making many captures of British
merchantmen in the Atlantic, visited
the Pacific ocean, where he was no less
signally successful.

Sixth. During the same summer,
British fleets entered the waters of the
Delaware and Chesapeake bays, under
the command of Admiral George Cock-
burn. All small merchant ships within
their reach were destroyed, and much
damage done to many of the towns on
the coast. Frenchtown, Georgetown,
Havre de Grace and Fredericktown
were burned. An attack was made
upon Norfolk, which was repulsed with
heavy loss. After committing many
barbarities at Hampton, Cock burn, with
his command, sailed south All the
ports north, to the limits of the New
England coast, were kept in close
blockade.

Peace Commission

During the session of the Congress,
which convened in December, 1813, a
communication was received from the
British government, of the purport that,
although they had declined to treat
under the mediation of Russia, yet they
were willing to enter into direct nego-
tiations either in London or Gotten-
burg. The offer was immediately ac-
ceded to, and the latter place appointed
for the meeting. Henry Clay and Jona-
than Russell were added to the Com-
missioners who had already been sent

OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN.

35

to Europe, The place of meeting was
afterwards changed from Gottenburg
to Ghent.

The country at this time was feeling
sorely the ills of war everywhere. New
loans had to be made; increased taxes
had to be levied ; more troops had to
be raised. The conquest of Canada
was still the chief object of the admin-
istration.

Events of the Campaign.

The plan of the campaign of 1814
was projected by General Armstrong,
the Secretary of War. The Depart-
ment of War was temporarily removed
to the frontier, and established at the
headquarters of the army on the Canada
line. The operations in chis quarter
during this year, as those of 181 3, were
attended with many marches and coun-
ter-marches, and much gallant fighting
on both sides, but without any decisive
results on either. The most noted
events connected '^dth them may be
thus summed u^

First. The advance of Wilkinson
into Canada commenced in March, and
ended with the affair at La Cole Mill,
on the 31st of that month, in which he
was defeated with heavy loss. Soon
after this he was superseded, and the
chief command given to General Izard.

Second. The battle of Chippewa,
which was fought on the 5 th of July
by General Brown, and in which the
United States forces won the day.

Third. The battle of Bridgewater,
or Lundy's Lane, which was fought on
the 25 th of July. It was here that
Colonel Winfield Scott, in command
of a brigade, so signally distinguished
himself. Two horses were shot under
him and he himself was severely

wounded, but was more than compen-
sated by the victory achieved. Con-
gress voted him a gold medal, and he
was soon promoted to a major- general-
ship.

Fourth. The battle of Fort Brie,
fought on the 15th of August, in which
the British General Drummond was
repulsed with great loss.

Fifth. The battle of Plattsburg,
which was fought on the nth of Sep-
tember. This was a joint land anr^
naval action. General Macomb com-
manded th-e United States land forces
at this place ; General Prevost com-
manded those of the British. The
United States naval forces were com-
manded by Commodore MacDonough ;
the British fleet was commanded by
Commodore Downie. The assault was
commenced by Prevost with his lane
forces. As Commodore Downie moved
up to assist with his fleet, he was met
and engaged by MacDonough with his
small flotilla.

Capture of the British Fleet.

The chief interest of both armies was
now diverted from the action on land
to that on water, while the conflict be-
tween the fleet and flotilla lasted. It
continued for upwards of two hours, and
was fierce as well as bloody. It ended
in the surrender of the British fleet to
Commodore MacDonough. Commodore
Downie was killed in the fight, and
when his flagship struck her colors,
the results of the day were decided or
land as well as on the water. Prevost
immediately retreated. This victory
ended all active operations in that quar-
ter.

Meantime, during the summer of
1 8 14 a fleet of fifty or sixty vessels ar-

36

OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN.

rived in the Chesapeake bay under Ad-
mirals Cockburn and Cochrane, bring-
ing a large land force under General
Ross. The design was the capture of
the city of Washington. Ross landed
five thousand men on the 19th of Au-
gust, at the head of the Patuxent, and
commenced his march overland. There
were at the time no forces for defence
near the capital. The raw militia were
hastily collected and put under General
Winder, who met the enemy at Bladens-
burg. The President and cabinet left
the city. Winder with his militia was
barely able to retard the advance of
Ross. He entered Washington the 24th
of August, and burned most of the pub-
lic buildings, including the President's
house and the capitol.

Repulse of the Enemy.

The troops then returned to their
shipping, and proceeded up the Chesa-
peake. Landing at North Point, they
advanced on Baltimore. This place was
defended by General Striker, with a force
consisting mostly of raw militia and
volunteers. In an action which took
place on the 12th of September, Ross
was killed, and his forces retired. After
an unsuccessful attack of the British
fleit under Cockburn, upon Fort Mc-
Henr}/, which commanded the entrance
to the city, the whole aimy re-embarked
and left the bay.

During this bombardment of Fort Mc-
Henry by Cockburn, which lasted anight
and a whole day, Francis Scott Key, of
Baltimore, then detained on board one
of the British vessels, whither he had
gone on some public mission, as he
gazed most anxiously upon the flag of
his country, still floating triumphantly
on the ramparts in the midst of the

heavy cannonading, composed his soul^
stirring song, the " Star Spangled Ban-
ner." The reader will be interested in
the accompanying fac-simile of the
original song, one of the most famous
ever composed, the popularity of which
only increases with *he lapse of time.

The New England States suffered
much in the same way during the sum-
mer. Stonington was bombarded, and
attempts were made to land an invading
force at several places, which were re-
pulsed by the militia.

Gains and Losses.

The operations of the respective
navies on the ocean during the year
1 8 14 resulted about as they did in 18 13.
The United States lost two war-ships
and captured five of like character, be-
sides many British merchantmen.

Mr. Gerry, the Vice-President, died
suddenly in Washington on the 23d of
November of this year. John Gaillard,
of South Carolina, succeeded him as
President of the Senate pro te^npore.

While these events were occurring on
land and water, during the summer of
1 8 14, the hostility in the New England
States to the Federal administration bad
ripened into a determination to take de-
cisive steps for the maintenance of their
own rights in their owts. way. A ma-
jority of the people of these States were
strongly opposed to the conquest of
Canada. Massachusetts and Connecti-
cut, throwing themselves upon their re-
served rights under the Constitution,
refused tc Allow their militia to be sent
out of dieir States, in what they deemed
a war of aggression against others,
especially when they were needed for
their own defence in repelling an inva-
sion.

OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 37

C^, /!a^^ ^yoT^^ ^tA^ y<s*^ ^^o^-u.fL 'tCc. ^xi^TS'^'^ <^^*^,

FACSIMILE OF THE ORIGINAL COPY OF THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER

38

OUR SEcONij WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN.

For this course they were very
severely censured by most of their sister
States, and the more so from the fact
that the war had been entered upon for
the joint maintenance of the rights of
their seamen and commerce. Moreover,
it was insisted upon by the friends of
the administration, that the mode of
warfare adopted was the surest for the
attainment of the objects aimed at. But
what increased the opposition of the
New England States at this time was
the refusal of the administration to pay
the expenses of their militia, called out
by the governors of their respective
States for their own local defence.

The Hartford Convention.

This refusal was based upon the
ground that these States had refused to
send their militia out of their limits
upon a Federal call. To this may be
added the new scheme of the adminis-
tration for forcing the militia of the
respective States outside of their limits,
not by a call on the governors of the
States for them, but by a general act of
Federal conscription, which was con-
.^idered by many able statesmen and
urists as clearly unconstitutional.

It was in this condition of things that
the Legislature of Massachusetts in-
vited the neighboring States to meet in
convention for mutual consultation.
Accordingly, a convention of delegates
from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New
Hampshire, Vermont and Connecticut,
met eX Hartford, in the latter State, on
the i5J;h day of December, 1814. The
deliberations of this famous body were
held within closed doors. What the real
ultimate designs of the leading members
of it were, have never been fully dis-
closed. Some mystery has ever hung

over it. But the resolutions adopted by
it, and the public address put forth by
it at the time, very clearly indicate that
the purpose was, either to effect a change
of policy on the part of the Federal ad-
ministration in the conduct of the war,
or for these States, in the exercise of
their sovereign rights, to provide for
their own well-being, as they thought
best, by withdrawing from the Union.
The only positive results of the con-
vention were, the appointment of a dep-
utation of the body to wait upon the
Federal authorities at Washington, co
whom in person their views were to be
presented, and the call of another con-
vention, to which this deputation was
to report, before any further decisive
action should be taken.

British Force Landed.

In the meantime, it became know^
that a large British force — of at least
twelve thousand men — had been landed
at or near the mouth of the Mississippi
river, under Sir Bdward Pakenham.
The country everywhere was in the
greatest alarm for the safety of New
Orleans. The command of this depart-
ment was now in charge of General
Jackson, with such forces as he could
collect, consisting mostly of volunteers
and militia, amounting in all to not
more than one half the numbers of the
approaching foe. He went vigorously
to work to repel this most formidable
invasion. With such means of resist-
ance as the genius of a "born general "
only can improvise, he was soon in an
attitude of defence. The result was the
ever-memorable charge of the British,
and their bloody repulse by Jackson, on
the 8th of January, 18 15.

This was the most brilliant victory

40

OUR SECOND WAR WITH GRKAT BRITAIN.

achieved by the arms of the United
States during the war. Two thousand
British soldiers, led in a charge on
Jackson's breastworks, were left dead
or wounded upon the field. Pakenham
himself was killed. Major-Generals
Gibbs and Keane, the two officers next
in command, were both wounded, the
former mortally ; while Jackson's loss
was only seven killed and six wounded.

The War Ended.

Upon the heels of the news of this
splendid achievement, which electrified
the country with joy, came the still
more gratifying intelligence of a treaty
of peace, which the commissioners had
effected at Ghent on the 24th of Decem-
ber, 1 8 14, fifteen days before this great
battle was fought. All discontents
ceased, and in the general joy at this
close of the bloody scenes of two years
and over, it seemed to be entirely for-
gotten or overlooked that not one word
was said in the treaty about the right of
search or impressment by Great Britain,
which was the main point in issue at
the commencement of the war.

The treaty of peace with England
was promptly ratified, and all necessary
steps for a disbandment of the army
were immediately taken by Congress.
But further work was in store for the
navy. The Dey of Algiers — in viola-
tion of the treaty of 1795 — had recently
been committing outrages upon Amer-
ican commerce within his waters.

Another war against him was soon
^afterwards declared. The gallant De-
catur was sent with a fleet to the Medi-
terranean for the chastisement of this
piratical power. He in a short time
captured two Algerine ships and brought
the Dey to terms. A treaty of peace

was made on the 30th of June, by which
the United States obtained, not only se-
curity for the future, but indemnity for
the past.

William H. Crawford, on his return
from Paris, where he had been resident
United States Minister for some time,
was appointed Secretary of War, ist of
August, 181 5.

The charter of the first bank of the
United States having expired in 181 1,
and an act for its renewal having failed
to pass, several attempts afterwards were
made to obtain a charter for a similar
institution, which likewise failed. A
bill for this purpose, which had passed
both houses of Congress, was vetoed by
Mr. Madison, in January, 1814. But
on the loth of April, 1816, another bill,
of like character, received his approval,
by which a new bank of the United
States was incorporated for twenty
years, with a capital of thirty-five mil-
lion dollars.

Indiana in the Union.

On the 19th day of April, 1816, an
act was passed for the admission of
Indiana into the Union as a State.

During the fall of 18 16 another Pres-
idential election took place. There was
at this time considerable division among
the Republicans as to who the succes-
sor should be. Mr. Madison had posi-
tively declined standing for re-election.
The choice of candidates finall}^ made
by the Democratic members of Congress
in caucus was : Mr. Monroe for Presi-
dent; and Governor Daniel D. Tomp-
kins, of New York, for Vice President.
The Federal party, still so-called, nomi-
nated Rufus King of New York, for
President ; and John Eager Howard,
of Maryland, for Vice-President.

OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN.

41

The result of the vote of the Elec-
toral Colleges was 183 for Mr. Monroe,
and 34 for Mr. King ; 183 for Governor
Tompkins, and 22 for Mr. Howard.
The vote by States between the Demo-
cratic and Federal tickets at this elec
tion stood : 16 for the Democratic and
three for the Federal. The sixteen
States that voted for Mr. Monroe and
Mr. Tompkins were : New Hamp-
shire, Rhode Island, Vermont, New
York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Mary-
land, Virginia, North Carolina, South
Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennes-
see, Ohio, Louisiana, and Indiana.
The three that voted for Mr. King
were : Massachusetts, Connecticut and
Delaware.

After the 4th of March, 18 17, Mr.
Madison retired from office, leaving the
country at peace with the world, and
rapidly recovering from the injurious
effects of the late war. He returned to
his home at Montpelier, Virginia, where
he enjoyed the society of his friends
and the general esteem of his country-
men.

The most distinguishing feature of
his administration was the war with

Great Britain. Whatever may be
thought of the wisdom or policy of that
war, or of its general conduct, the re-
sult unquestionably added greatly to
the public character of the United
States m the estimation of foreign
powers. The price at which this had
been purchased was, in round numbers,
about one hundred million dollars in
public expenditures, and the loss of
about thirty thousand men, including
those who fell in battle as well as those
who died of disease contracted in the
service.

Of the amount of private or individ-
ual losses no approximate estimate can
be made ; and though in the treaty of
peace nothing was said about the main
cause for which the war was prosecuted,
yet Great Britain afterwards refrained
from giving any offence in the practical
assertion of her theoretic right of search
and impressment. Whether the same
ends could have been attained by any
other course which would not have
involved a like sacrifice of treasure and
blood,* is a problem that can never be
satisfactorily solved by human specu-
lation.

lA the Uni

J'^i\^ durin<

CHAPTER III.

Origin and Growth of the Mormons.

the important events in
United States occurring
ig the century must be
mentioned the rise and
growth of the new and strange sect
known as the Mormons, or the Church
of Jesus Christ of L^atter-Day Saints. It
was founded by Joseph Smith, at Man-
chester, New York, in 1830, and after
many vicissitudes finally settled in Salt
I^ake City in Utah. Smith, was born
Dvicember 23rd, 1805, at Sharon, Wind-
sor County, Vermont, from which place
ten years later his parents, a poor, ignor-
ant, thriftless and not too honest couple,
removed to New York, where they set-
tled on a small farm near Palmyra,
Wayne County (then Ontario).

Four years later, in 1809, they re-
moved to Manchester, some six miles
distant, and it was at the latter place
when fifteen years old that Smith Jaegan
to have his alleged visions, in one of
which on the night of 21st of Septem-
ber, 1823, the angel Moroni appeared
to him three times and told him that
the Bible of the Western Continent, the
supplement to the New Testament, was
buried in a certain spot near Man-
chester. Thither, four years later and
after due disciplinary probation, Smith
went and had delivered into his charge
by an angel of the lyord a stone box, in
which was a volume six inches thick,
made of thin gold plates eight inches
by seven, and fastened together by three
gold rings.

The plates were covered with small
writing in the "Reformed Egyptian"
tongue, and were accompanied by a
42

pair of supernatural spectacles, consist-
ing of two crystals set in a silver bow,
and called " Urim and Thummim ; "
by aid of these the mystic characters
could be read.

Being himself unable to read or write
fluently, Smith employed as amanuensis,
one Oliver Cowdery, to whom, from
behind a curtain, he dictated a transla-
tion, which, with the aid of a farmer,
Martin Harris, who had more money
than wit, was printed and published in
1830 under the title of Tke Book of
Mormon^ and accompanied by the sworn
statement of Oliver Cowdery, David
Whitmer, and Martin Harris that an
angel of God had shown them the plates
of which the book was a translation.

They Swore Falsely.

This testimony all three, on renounc-
ing Mormonism some years later, de-
nounced as false ; but meanwhile it
helped Smith to impose on the credu-
lous, particularly in the absence of the
gold plates themselves, which suddenly
and mysteriously disappeared.

The Book oj Mormon^ in which Jos-
eph Smith was declared to be God's
"prophet," with all power and entitled
to all obedience, professes to give the
history of America from its first settle-
ment by a colony of refugees from
among the crowd dispersed by the con-
fusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel
down to the year 5 a. d. These settlers
having in course of time destroyed <^ne
another, nothing of importance occurred
until 600 B. c, when Lehi, his wife and
four sons, with ten friends, all frota

ORIGIN AND GROWTH uF THE MORMONS.

Jerusalem, landed on the coast
Chili, and effected a settlement.

All went well until the death ot
lyehi, when the divine appointment to

43

the leadership of Nephi, the youngest
son, roused the resentment of his elder
brothers, who were in consequence con-
demned to have dark skins and to be an
idle mischievous race— hence the North
American Indians. Between the Nc-
phites and the bad Hebrews a fiercq
war was maintained for centuries, until
finally, in spite of divine intervention
in the person of the crucified Christ,
the Nephites fell away from the true
faith, and in 384 a. d. were nearly
annihilated by their dark-skinned foes
in a battle at the hill of Cumorah in
Ontario county, New York.

Among the handful that escaped were
Mormon and his son Moroni, the for-
mer of whom collected the sixteen
books of records, kept by successive
kings and priests, into one volume,
which on his death was supplemented
by his son with some personal remi-
niscences and by him buried in the hill
of Cumorah— he being divinely assured
that the book would one day be discov-
ered by God's chosen prophet.

A Historical Romance.

This is Smith's account of the book,
but in reality it was written in 18 12 as
an historical romance by one Solomon
Spalding, a crack-brained preacher;
and the MS. falling into the hands of an
unscrupulous compositor, Sidney Rig-
don, was copied by him, and subse-
quently given to Joseph Smith. Armed
with this book and with self-assumed
divine authority, the latter soon began »
to attract followers.

On 6th of April, 1830, the first con-
ference of the new sect, called by their
neighbors Mormons, but by themselves
subsequently Latter-Day Saints of Jesus
Christ, was held at Fayette, Seneca

44

ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS.

county, New York, and in the same
year another revelation was received by
Smith, proclaiming him "seer, trans-
lator, prophet apostle of Jesus Christ,
and elder of tne church." Smith now
began to baptize ; but, his character,
which was none of the best, being too
well known in Fayette, he found it
convenient to remove with his follow-
ers, now thirty in number, to Kirtland,
Ohio, which was to be the seat c ^ the
New Jerusalem.

Tarred and Feathered

Here he had another revelation, di-
recting the saints to consecrate all their
property to God and to start a bank.
This being done, and Smith appointed
president of the bank, the country was
soon flooded with worthless notes, which
fact, added to other grievances, so en-
raged the neighboring Christian settlers,
that on the night of 22nd of May, 1832,
a number of them dragged Smith and
Rigdon from their beds and tarred and
feathered them. One year later, the
church was fairly organized, with three
presidents, Smith, Rigdon, and Freder-
ick G. Williams, who were styled the
first presidency, and entrusted with the
keys of the last kingdom.

About this time the licentiousness of
Smith might have led to the dissolution
of the church but for the accession of
Brigham Young, a Vermont painter and
glazier, thirty years old, who turned up
in Kirtland in 1832, and was immedi-
ately ordained elder. Young's indomi-
table will, persuasive eloquence, execu-
tive ability, shrewdness, and zeal, soon
made their influence felt, and, when a
further step was taken in 1835 towards
the organization of a hierarchy by the
institution of the quorum of the "twelve

apostles," who were sent out as prosely-
tizing missionaries among the " gen-
tiles," Young was ordained one of the
"twelve," and despatched to preach
throughout the eastern States.

In 1836 a large temple was consecra-
ted in Kirtland, and in the following
year Orson Hyde and Heber C. Kimball
were sent off as missionaries to England,
where, among the laboring masses in
Manchester, lyiverpool, Birmingham,
Leeds, Glasgow, and the mining dis-
tricts of South Wales they achieved a
remarkable success. Early in 1838 the
Kirtland bank failed, and Smith and
Rigdon fled to Caldwell county, Mis-
souri, where a large body of the saints,
after having been driven successively
from Jackson and Clay counties, had
taken refuge and flourished.

A Profligate Impostor.

Smith's troubles, however, continued
to increase. His gross profligacy had re-
pelled many of his leading supporters
and bred internal dissensions, while from
the outside the brethren were harassed
and threatened by the steadily growing
hostility of the native Missourians. To
counteract the efforts of his enemies, a
secret society was organized in Smith's
favor in October, 1838, called the Dan-
ites, with the avowed purpose of sup-
porting Smith at all hazards, of up-
holding the authority of his revelation
and decrees as superior to the laws of
the land, and of helping him to get
possession, first of the State, then of the
United States, and ultimately of the
world.

To such a height did the inner dis-
sensions and the conflicts with the "gen-
tiles" grow that they assumed the pro-
portions of a civil war, and necessitated

i

ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS.

45

the calling out of the State militia.
Defying the legal officers, Smith forti-
fied the town and armed the saints, but
finally had to succumb to superior num-
bers. Smith and Rigdon were arrested

shortly afterwards rejoined by Smith,
who succeeded in escaping from prison,
and, having obtained a charter, they
founded the city of Nauvoo.

Such were the powers granted them

NEW MORMON TEMPLE IN SALT LAKE CITY.

and imprisoned on a charge of treason,
murder and felony, and their followers
to the number of 15,000 crossed over
into Illinois and settled near Commerce,
Hancock county. Here they were

by this charter as to render the city
practically independent of the State
Government, and to give Smith all but
unlimited evil power. He organized a
military body called the Nauvoo legion,

46

ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THK MORMONS.

of which he constituted himself com-
mander with the title of lieutenant-gen-
eral, while he was also president of the
church and mayor of the city, On April
6th, 1 84 1, the foundations of the new
temple were laid, and the city continued
to grow rapidly in prosperity and size.
But Smith's vices were beginning to
bear fruit. Some years previously he
had prevailed on several women to co-
habit with him, and in order to pacify
his lawful wife and silence the objec-
tions of the saints he had a revelation on
July 1 2th, 1843, expressly establishing
and approving polygamy. The procla-
mation of the new doctrine excited
widespread indignation, which found
special expression in the pages of the
Expositoi^^ a newspaper published by an
old friend of Smith, one Dr. Foster.

Shot Dead by a Mob.

Smith at once caused the Expositor
printing-office to be razed and Foster
expelled, on which the latter procured
a warrant for the arrest of Smith, his
brother Hyrum, and sixteen others.
Smith resisted ; the militia was called
out ; the Mormons armed themselves ;
and a civil war seemed imminent, when
the governor of the State persuaded
Smith to surrender and stand his trial.
Accordingly, on June 27, 1844, he and
Hyrum were imprisoned in Carthage
jail ; but that same night a mob broke
into the prison, dragged out Smith and
his brother and shot them dead.

This shooting was the most fortunate
thing that had ever happened to the
Mormon cause, investing the murdered
president with the halo of martyrdom,
and effacing public recollection of his
vices in the lustre of a glorious death.
Of the confusion that followed Smith's

" taking off," Brigham Young profited
by procuring his own election to the
presidency by the council of the "twelve
apostles," — a position for which Ms
splendid executive abilities well fitted
him, as subsequent events abundantly
proved.

The following year witnessed what
appeared to be the culmination of their
misfortunes. The legislature of Illinois
repealed the charter of Nauvoo, and so
critical did the situation become that
the leaders resolved to emigrate imme-
diately, and preparations were begun
for a general exodus westward. Early in
1846 a large number of the body met at
Council Bluffs, Iowa, and those who had
stayed behind soon found cause to re-
gret that they too had not left Nauvoo,
as in the September of the same year
that city was cannonaded, and the Mor-
mons were driven out.

Shrewd Speculation.

The subsequent history of Nauvoo rs
interesting. The new citizens sent
abroad highly colored circulars about
the great water-power and natural site,
and a great speculation followed, which
ended in a collapse, and the city shrank
to a little hamlet of perhaps 700 people.
Then came the Icarians, French Com-
munists, under the lead of M. Cabet.
These proposed to fit up the temple for
a social hall and school-room.

But at 2 A. M. of November 10, 1848,
it was found to be on fire, and before
daylight every particle of woodwork
was destroyed. It was set on fire in the
third story of the steeple, one hundred
and forty feet from the ground. The
dry pine burned like tinder. There was
no mode of reaching the fire, and in
twenty minutes the whole wooden in-

ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS.

47

terior was a mass of flames. In two
hours nothing remained but hot walls
enclosing a bed of embers. Afterwards
a man residing fourteen miles distant
confessed that he
set it on fire. He
had suffered at the
hands of the Mor-
mons and swore no
trace of them should
cumber the soil of
Illinois.

Meanwhile pio-
neers had been de-
spatched to the
Great Salt Lake
valley, Utah, and,
their report prov-
ing favorable, a
large body of emi-
grants was marched
with military disci-
pline across the wil-
derness to the val-
ley, where they im-
mediately proceed-
ed to found Salt
Lake City, and
where on July 24,
1 847, they were
joined by their
chief, Brigham
Young. In the
May following the
main body of the
saints set out to
rejoin their breth-
ren, and in the au-
tumn of that year

reached Salt Lake City. Large tracts
of land were at once put under cultiva-
tion, a great ciLy sprang up as by
magic, and the untiring industry, en-
ers:^^ and zeal of the emigrants turned

a barren wilderness into a fertile and
blooming garden.

An emigration fund was organize^,
missionaries were sent out, and ^oon

JOE SMITH KIEjC^ED By A MOB OF INDIGNANT CITIZENS.

settlers began to pour in from all quar-
ters of the globe, particularly from
Great Britain, Sweden and Norway, and
in less numbers from Germany, Swit-
zerl^nrl and France. Strauia-elv enough,

48

ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS.

and the fact deserves emphasis, Ireland
has furnished few if any recruits to the
cause of Mormonism. In March, 1849,
a convention was held at Salt Ivake
City, and a State was organized under
the name of Deseret, meaning "the
land of the honey-bee."

A legislature was also elected, and a
constitution framed, which was sent on
to Washington. This Congress refused
to recognize, and by way of compromise
. for declining to admit the proposed new
State into the Union, President Fill-
more in 1850 organized the country oc-
cupied by the Mormons into the Terri-
tory of Utah, with Brigham Young as
governor. District judges were also ap-
pointed by the Federal Government;
but in 185 1, a few months after their
appointment, they were ibrced to leave
by the aggressive tactics of Young.
Such bold defiance of the Federal Gov-
ernment could not be ignored; Brigham
was suspended from the governorship,
and Colonel Steptoe of the United States
army appointed in his stead.

Daring Outrages.

The new governor, backed by a bat-
talion of soldiers, arrived in Utah in
August, 1854; but so strong was the op-
position which he met with that he
dared not assume office, and was forced
to content himself with- merely winter-
ing in^ Salt Ivake City, after which he
withdrew his troops to California. Nor
did the other civil officers appointed by
the United States Government at the
same time show any bolder front. In
February, 1856, a band of armed Mor-
mons broke into the court-room of the
United States district judge, and forced
Judge Drnmniond to adjourn his court
sine die. His surrender precipitated the

flight of the other civil officers, and with
the sole exception of the United States
Indian agent they withdrew from Salt
Lake City.

These facts led President Buchanan
to appoint a new governor in the person
of Alfred Cumming, the superintendent
of Indian affairs on the upper Missouri,
who, in 1857, went to Utah, accom-
panied by Judge Eckels of Indiana as
chief justice, and by a force of 2500
soldiers. Enraged by the aggressive ac-
tion, Brigham Young boldly called the
saints to arms. In September the Uni-
ted States army reached Utah, but on
the 5th and 6th of October, a band of
mounted Mormons destroyed a number
of its supply trains, and a few days later
cut off" 800 oxen from its rear and drove
them into Salt Lake City.

Mountain Meadows Massacre.

The result was that the United States
army, now commanded by Colonel A.
S. Johnson, was compelled — it being
now mid-November — to go into winter
quarters at Black's Forks, near Fort
Bridger. In the same year a party of
Mormons and Indians, instigated and
led by a Mormon bishop named John D.
Lee, attacked a train of 150 non-Mor-
mon emigrants at Mountain Meadows,
near Utah, and massacred every soul.
Governor Cumming at once declared
the Territory in a state of rebellion ;
but in th^ spring of 1858, through the
intervention of Thomas L. Kane, of
Pennsylvania, armed with letters of an
thority from President Buchanan, the
Mormons were induced to submit to the
Federal authority, and accepted a free
offer of pardon made to them by the
United States Government as the con-
dition of their submission.

ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS.

49

Matters being thus settled, the Federal
troops encamped on the western shore
of I^ake Utah, some forty miles from
Salt Lake City, where they remained
until withdrawn from the Territory in
i860. On the close of our Civil War a
Federal Governor was again appointed,
and, in 1871, polygamy was declared to
be a criminal offence, and Brigham
Young was arrested.

This action, however, on the part of

The year 1877 was otherwise signal-
ized in Mormon history by the trial,
conviction, and execution of John D.
Lee, for the Mountain Valley massacre
of 1857. Of late years the question of
Mormonism has occupied public atten-
tion. In 1873 Mr. Frelinghuysen intro-
duced a bill severely censuring polyg-
amy, and declaring that the wives of
polygamists could claim relief by action
for divorce. In 1874 the committee of

MASSACRE OF THE MORRISITES.

the United States Government was
merely spasmodic, and the Mormons
continued to practice polygamy, and to
increase in wealth and numbers until
August 29, 1877, when Brigham Young
died, leaving a fortune of $2,000,000 to
seventeen wives and fifty-six childrun.
He was succeeded in office by John
Taylor, an Englishman, although the
actual leadership fell to George Q. Can-
non, "first counsellor" to the president,
and one of the ablest men in the sect.

the House of Representatives reported
a bill which reduced Utah to the posi-
tion of a province, placing the control
of affairs in the hands of Federal officials,
and practically abolishing polygamy.

In the same year George Q. Cannon
was elected a delegate from Utah, and
though his election was contested it was
confirmed by the House of Representa-
tives. This decision, however, was ac-
companied by the passing of a resolu-
tion by a vote of 127 to 51, appointing

60

ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS.

a committee of investigation into Dele-
gate Cannon's alleged polygamy — he
having, it was asserted, four wives.
Later in the same year the Utah Judici-
ary Bill, attacking the very foundation
of Mormonism, passed the House in
spite of the opposition of Cannon.

Other steps in the same direction
have since been taken, and bills passed,
having for their object the extirpation
of polygamy. The secession, chiefly
because of his opposition to the prac-
tice, of Brigham Young's son, a Chris-
tian preacher, and of a large body of
other anti-po\ygami6ts who claim to be
the true Latter- Day Saints, represents
not an individual opinion, but the
deep-rooted conviction of a great party.
Already there are not wanting signs of
approaching dissolution, of which per-
haps the most significant is the confer-
ence of the "Re-organized Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints," held
on April 6, 1883, at Kirtland, Lake
County, Ohio.

Origin of the New Sect.

This sect originated in 185 1, seven
years after the death of Joseph Smith,
when several officers of the church met
and claimed to have received a revela-
tion from God, directing them to repu-
diate Brigham Young, as not being the
divinely-appointed and legitimate suc-
cessor of Joseph Smith, and as being
the promulgator of such false doctrines
as polygamy, Adam-God worship, and
the right to shed the blood of apostates.

Nothing of special importance oc-
curred, however, till i860, when Joseph
Smith, Jr., the eldest son of the founder
of the faith, became identified with the
Re-organized Church as its president.
Since then the seceders have prosecuted

missionary work throughout the United
States, Great Britain, Canada, Scandi-
navia, Switzerland, Australia, and the
Society Islands, until their communi-
cants are said to number over 27,000.

Bill to Suppress Polygamy.

On January 12, 1887, the House of
Representatives passed without division
a bill for the suppression of polygamy
in the territory of Utah. Its chief pro-
visions are: (i) Polygamy is declared
to be a felony ; (2) the chief financial
corporations of the Mormons are dis-
solved, and the attorney-general is di-
rected to wind them up by process of
the courts ; (3) polygamists are made
ineligible to vote; (4) all voters in Utah
are to b? required to take an oath to
obey the laws of the United States, and
especially the laws against polygamy ;
(5) woman suffrage in Utah is abolished,
and (6) lawful wives and husbands are
made competent witnesses against per-
sons accused of polygamy.

It was reported in September, iCxD,
that polygamy had been declared to be
no longer a feature of Mormon teach-
ing, and that it was the intention of the
sect to submit to the ordinary laws
binding on Americans.

In the first part of April, 1893, oc-
curred the dedication of the great tem-
ple at Salt Lake City, built in forty
years, at a cost stated to be ^5,000,000
In September, 1894, our government
by proclamation granted pardon to
polygamists, and it was reported that
among the Mormons there was a gen-
eral disposition to observe the laws of
the United States enacted against their
favorite institution. In January, 1897,
ten colonies in New Mexico were re-
ported to be prosperous.

CHAPTER IV.

War Between the United States and Mexico.

ARIv'V in the century, pioneers
from the United States began to
find their wa}^ to Texas, which
was then a wild country, inhabited only
by roving Indians and the garrisons of
the few Spanish forts within its limits.
One of these emigrants, Moses Austin,
of Durham, Connecticut, conceived the
plan of colonizing settlers from the
United States.

For this purpose he obtained from the
Spanish Government, in 1820, the grant
of an extensive tract of land; but before
he could put his plans in execution he
died. His son, Stephen F. Austin, in-
herited the rights of his father under
this grant, and went to Texas with a
number of emigrants from this country,
and explored that region for the pur-
pose of locating his grant.

He selected as the most desirable site
for his colony the country between the
Brazos and Colorado rivers, and founded
a city, which he named Austin, in honor
of the originator of the colony, to whom
Texas owes its existence as an Ameri-
can commonwealth. Having seen the
settlers established in their new homes,
Mr. Austin returned to the United
States to collect other emigrants for his
colony.

During his absence Mexico and the
orner Spanish provinces rose in revolt
against Spain, and succeeded in estab-
lishing their independence. Texas,
being regarded as a part of the Mexican
territory, shared the fortunes of that
country. Upon his return to Texas,
Austin, in consideration of the altered
state of affairs, went to the city of Mex-

ico, and obtained from the Mexican
government a confirmation of the grant
made to his father. Such a confirma-
tion was necessary in order to enable
him to give the settlers valid titles to
the lands of his colony.

Mexico at first exercised but a nomi-
nal authority over the new settlements,
and the colonists were allowed to live
under their own laws, subject to the
rules drawn up by Austin. In order to
encourage settlementa in Texas, the
Mexican Congress, on the second of
May, 1824, enacted the following law,
declaring, "That Texas is to be an-
nexed to the Mexican province of Coha-
huila, until it is of sufficient importance
to form a separate State, when it is to
become an independent State of the
Mexican republic, equal to the other
States of which the same is composed,
free, sovereign, and independent in
whatever exclusively relates to its
internal government and administra-
tion."

Flood of Immigration.

Encouraged by this decree, large
numbers of Americans emigrated to
Texas, and to these were added emi-
grants from all the countries of Europe.
The population grew rapidly, new
towns sprang up, and Austin's colony
prospered in a marked degree, until
1830, when Bustamente having made
himself, by violence and intrigue, pres-
ident of the so-called Mexican republic,
prohibited the emigration of foreigners
to the Mexican territory,, and issued a
number of decrees very oppressive to

61

52

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

the people, and in violation of the con-
stitution of 1824.

In order to enforce these measures in
Texas, he occupied that province with
his troops, and placed Texas under mil-
itary rule. The Texans resented this
interference with their rights, and finally
compelled the Mexican troops to with-
draw from the province. In 1832, an-
other revolution in Mexico drove Bus-
tamente from power, and placed Santa
Anna at the head of affairs as presi-
dent or dictator

Arrested and Imprisoned.

Texas took no part in the disturb-
ances of Mexico, but after the accession
of Santa Anna to power, formed a con-
stitution, and applied for admission into
the Mexican republic as a State, in ac-
cordance with the constitution of 1824,
and the act of the Mexican Congress
which we have quoted. Stephen F.
Austin was sent to the city of Mexico
to present the petition of Texas for this
purpose. He was refused an answer to
this petition for over a year, and at last
wrote to the authorities of Texas, advis-
ing them to organize a State govern-
ment without waiting for the action of
the M'^xican Congress.

For this recommendation, which the
Mexican government regarded as trea-
sonable, Santa Anna caused the arrest
of Austin, and kept him in prison
for over a year. Texas now began
to manifest the most determined opposi-
tion to the usurpation of Santa Anna,
and measures were taken to maintain
the rights of the province under the con-
stitution of 1824. Troops were organ-
ized, and preparations made to resist the
force which it was certain Mexico would
send against them.

Santa Anna did not allow them to re-
main long in suspense, but at once dis-
patched a force under General Cos, to
disarm the Texans. On the second o
October, 1 83 5, Cos attacked the town of
Gonzalez, which was held by a Texan
force, but was repulsed with heavy loss.
A week later, on the ninth of October,
the Texans captured the town of Goliad,
and a little later gained possession of
the mission house of the Alamo. Both
places were garrisoned, and the Texan
army, which Vv?^as under the command
of Austin, in the course of a few
months succeeded in driving the Mexi-
cans out of Texas.

State Government.

On the twelfth of November, 1835, a
convention of the people of Texas met
at the city of Austin, and organized a
regular State government. Prominent
among the members was General Sam
Houston, a settler from the United
States. Soon after the meeting of the
convention General Austin resigned the
command of the army, and was sent to
the United States as the commissioner
of that State to this government, and
was succeeded as commander-in chief
by General Sam Houston. Henry Smith
was elected governor of Texas by the
people.

As soon as Santa Anna learned that
his troops had been driven out of Texas,
and that the Texans had set up a State
government, he set out for that country
with an army of seventy-five hundred
men. He issued orders to his troops to
shoot every prisoner taken, and intended
to make the struggle a war of extermina-
tion. He arrived before the Alamo late
in February, 1836. This fort was very
strong, and was held by a force of one

e:zcuc'^

SCENES IN MEXICO.

53

54

WAK. BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

hundred and forty Texans under Colonel
Travis, It was besieged by the whole
Mexican army, and was subjected to a
bombardment of eleven days.

Davy Crockett.

At last, on the sixth of March, the
garrison being worn out with fatigue,
the fort was carried by assault, and the
whole garrison was put to the sword.
Among the heroes who fell at the Texan
Thermopylae was the eccentric but chiv-
alrous Colonel Davy Crockett, of Ten-
nessee, who had generously come to aid
the Texans in their struggle for liberty.
The capture of the Alamo cost the Mexi-
cans a loss of sixteen hundred men, or
over eleven men for every one of its
defenders.

On the 17th of March, 1836, the con-
vention adopted a constitution for an
independent republic, and formally pro-
claimed the independence of Texas.
David G. Burnett was elected president
of the republic.

The fort at Goliad was held by a force
of three hundred and thirty Texans,
under Colonel Fanning, a native of
Georgia. On the twenty-seventh of
March it was attacked by the Mexican
army. The garrison maintained a gal-
lant defence, but their resources being
exhausted, and the Mexicans being re-
inforced during the night, Fanning de-
cided to surrender his force, if he could
obtain honorable terms. He proposed
:o Santa Anna to lay down his arms and
surrender the post on condition that he
and his men should be allowed and as-
sisted to return to the United States.
The proposition was accepted by Santa
Anna, and the terms of the surrender
were formally drawn up and were signed
by each commauder. As soon as the

surrender was made, however, and the
arms of the Texans were delivered,
Santa Anna, in base violation of his
pledge, caused Fanning and the survi-
vors of the garrison, to the number of
three hundred men, to be put to death-
The massacres of the Alamo and Go-
liad, and the steady advance of the Mex-
ican army under Santa Anna caused a
feeling of profound alarm throughout
the new republic. The government
was removed temporarily to Galveston,
and General Houston retreated behind
the San Jacinto. Santa Anna pursued
the Texan forces, and at length came up
with them on the banks of that stream.
Houston had but seven hundred and
fifty men with him, and these were im-
perfectly armed and without discipline.

Mexican Army Routed.

With this force he surprised the Mexi-
can camp, on the 21st of April, and
routed the Mexican army, inflicting upon
it a loss of over six hundred killed, and
taking more than eight hundred priso-
ners. Santa Anna himself was among
the prisoners. Houston at once entered
into negotiations with him for the with-
drawal of the Mexican forces from
Texas. This was done at once, and the
independence of Texas was achieved.
Santa Anna also recognized the inde-
pendence of the new republic, but the
Mexican Congress refused to confirui
this act.

Houston was now the idol of the
Texan people as the deliverer of their
country from the hated Mexicans. At
the next general election he was chosen
President as the republic, and was inau-
gurated on the twenty-second of Octo-
ber, 1836. General Mirabeau B. Lamar
was the third President of the ii

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

53

of Texas, and entered upon his office in
1838, He was succeeded in 1844 by
Anson Jones, the fourth President.

The territory of the republic was suffi-
ciently large to make five States the size
of New York, and its climate and soil
were among the most delightful and
fertile in the world. It contained a popu-
lation of about two hundred thousand,
and was increasing rapidly in inhabi-
tants and in prosperity.

Texas a Republic.

On the third of March, 1837, the in-
dependence of the republic of Texas
was acknowledged by the United States,
and in 1839 by France and England.
Being young and feeble, and being set-
tled almost entirely by Americans, the
people of Texas at an early day came to
the conclusion that their besfinterests
required them to seek a union with the
United States, and as early as August,
1837, 2. proposition was submitted to
Mr. Van Buren looking to such a union.
It was declined by him, but the question
was takerx up by the press and people
of the Union, and was discussed with
the greatest interest and activity.

The South was unanimously in favor
of the annexation of Texas, as it was a
region in which slave labor would be
particularly profitable ; and a strong
party in the North opposed the annexa-
tion for the reason that it would inevi-
tably extend the area of slavery. An
additional argument against annexation
was that it would involve a war with
Mexico, which had never acknowledged
the independence of Texas.

In April, 1844, Texas formally ap-
plied for admission into the United
States, and a treaty for that purpose was
negotiated with her by the government

of this country. It was rejected by the
Senate.

In the fall of 1 844 the Presidential
election took place. The leading po-
litical question of the day was the an-
nexation of Texas. It was advocated
by the administration of President Tyler
and by the Democratic party. This
party also made the claim of the United
States to Oregon one of the leading
issues of the campaign. Its candidates
were James K. Polk, of Tennessee, and
George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania.
The Whig party supported Henry Clay,
of Kentucky, and Theodore Freling-
huysen, of New Jersey, and opposed the
annexation of Texas.

During this campaign, which was one
of unusual excitement, the Anti-slaveiy
party made its appearance for the first
time as a distinct political organization,
and nominated James G. .Birney as its
candidate for the Presidency,

Democrats in Power.

The result of the campaign was a de-
cisive victory for the Democrats. This
success was generally regarded as an em-
phatic expression of the popular will
representing the Texas and Oregon
questions. Mr. Birney did not receive
a single electoral vote, and of the popu-
lar vote only sixty-four thousand six
hundred and fifty-three ballots were
cast for him.

When Congress met in December,
1844, the efforts for the annexation of
Texas were renewed. A proposition
was made to receive Texas into the
Union by a joint resolution of Congress.
A bill for this purpose passed the House
of Representatives, but the Senate ad-
ded an amendment appointing commis-
sioners to negotiate with Mexico for

56

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

the annexation of Texas, which she
still claimed as a part of her territory.
The President was authorized by a
clause in these resolutions to adopt either
the House or the Senate plan of annexa-
tion, and on the second of March, 1845,
the resolutions were adopted.

Senator Benton, of Missouri, the au-
thor of the Senate plan, was of the opin-
ion that the matter would be left to
Mr. Polk, the President-elect, to be con-
ducted by him; and that gentleman had
expressed his intention to carry out the
Senate plan, as he hoped an amicable
arrangement could be made with Mex-
ico. Mr. Tyler, however, determined
not to leave the annexation of Texas to
his successor, and at once adopted the
plan proposed in the House resolutions,
and on the night of Sunday, March 3d,
a messenger was despatched with all
speed to Texas to lay the proposition
before the authorities of that State. It
was accepted by them, and on the fourth
of July, 1845, Texas became one of the
United States.

Large Territory Added.

The area thus added to the territory of
the Union comprised two hundred and
thirty-seven thousand five hundred and
four square miles. It was provided by
the act of admission that four additional
States might be formed out of the terri-
tory of Texas, when the population
should increase to an extent which
should make such a step desirable.
,Those States lying north of the Mis-
souri Compromise line — 36° 30' north
latitude — were to be free States, those
south of that line were to be free or
slave-holding ' ' as the people of each
State asking admission may desire."
To Texas was reserved the right to re-

fuse to allow the division of her terri-
tory.

Mexico had never acknowledged the
independence of Texas, and since the
defeat at San Jacinto had repeatedly
threatened to restore her authority over
the Texans by force of arms. She
warmly resented the annexation of
Texas by the United States, and a few
days after that event was completed.
General Almonte, the Mexican minis-
ter at Washington, entered a formal
protest against the course of the United
States, demanded his passports, and left
the country.

Redress for Outrages.

Some years before this, a number of
American ships trading with Mexican
ports had been seized and plundered by
the Mexican authorities, who also con-
fiscated the property of a number of
American residents in that country.
The sufferers by these outrages appealed
for redress to the government of the
United States, which had repeatedly
tried to negotiate with Mexico for
the collection of these claims, which
amounted to six millions of dollars.
Mexico made several promises of settle-
ment, but failed to comply with them.
In 1840, however, a new treaty was
made between that country and the
United States, and Mexico pledged her-
self to pay the American claims in
twenty annual instalments of three
hundred thousand dollars each. Three
of these instalments had been paid at
the time of the annexation of Texas;
but Mexico now refused to make any
further payment.

Mexico claimed that the limits of
Texas properly ended at the Neuces
river, while the Texans insisted that

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

57

their boundary was the Rio Grande.
Thus the region between these two
rivers became a debatable land, claimed
by both parties, and a source of great
and immediate danger. It was evident
that Mexico was about to occupy this
region with her troops, and the legisla-
ture of Texas, alarmed by the threaten-
ing attitude of that country, called upon
the United States governuient to pro-
tect its territory. The President at
once sent General Zachary Taylor with
a force of fifteen hundred regular troops,
called the "army of occupation," to
"take position in the country between
the Neuces and the Rio Grande, and
to repel any inyasion of the Texan
territory."

In Battle Array.

General Taylor accordingly took po-
sicion at Corpus Christi, at the mouth
of the Neuces, in September, 1845, and
remained there until the spring of 1846.
At the same time a squadon of war ves-
sels under Commodore Connor was des-
patclied to the Gulf to co operate with
General Ta}-lor. Both of these officers
"were ordered to commit no act of hos-
tility against Mexico unless she declared
war, or was herself the aggressor by
striking the first blow."

At the commencement of the dispute
between the two countries, Herrera was
President of Mexico. Although diplo-
matic communications had ceased be-
tween the United States and Mexico,
he was anxious to settle the quarrel by
negotiation, but at tlie Presidential elec-
tion held about this time Herrera was
defeated, and Paredes, who was bitterly
hostile to the United States, was cho-
sen President of the Mexican republic.
Paredes openly avowed his determina-

tion to drive the i^mericans beyond the
Neuces.

In February, 1846, General Taylor
was ordered by President Polk to ad-
vance from the Neuces to a point on the
Rio Grande, opposite the Mexican town
of Matamoras, and establish there a for-
tified post, in order to check the Mexi-
can forces which were assembling there
in large numbers for the purpose of
invading Taxas. Taylor at once set
out, and leaving the greater part of his
stores at Point Isabel, on the Gulf, ad-
vanced to the Rio Grande, and built a
fort and established a camp opposite
and within cannon shot of Matamoras.
General Ampudia, commanding the
Mexican forces at Matamoras, imme-
diately notified General Taylor that this
was an act of war upon Mexican soil,
and demanded that he should "break
up his camp and retire beyond the
Neuces" within twenty-four hours.

i^lrst Blood Shed.

Taylor replied that he was acting in
accordance with the orders of his eov-
ernment, which was alone responsible
3r his conduct, and that he should
maintain the position he had chosen.
He pushed forward the work on his
fortifications with energy, and kept a
close watch upon the Mexicans. Neithet
commander was willing to take the re-
sponsibility of beginning the war, and
Ampudia, notwithstanding his threat,
remained inactive. His course did not
satify his government, and he was re-
moved and General Arista appointed in
his place. Arista at once began hostili-
ties by interposing detachments of his
army between Taylor's force and his
depot of supplies at Point Isabel. On
the twenty-sixth of April Taylor sent

58

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

a party of sixty dragoons under Captain
Thornton to reconnoitre the Mexican
lines. The dragoons were surprised
with a loss of sixteen killed. The re-
mainder were made prisoners, and
Thornton alone escaped. This was the
first blood shed in the war with Mexico,
the beginning of the struggle.

A day or two later, being informed
by Captain Walker, who, with his Texan
Rangers, was guarding the line of com-
munication with Point Isabel, that the
Mexicans were threatening the latter
place in heavy force. General Taylor
left Major Brown with three hundred
men to hold the fort, and marched to
Point Isabel to relieve that place. He
agreed with Major Brown that if the
fort should be attacked or hard pressed,
the latter should notify him of his dan-
ger by firing heaving signal guns at
certain intervals. He reached Point
Isabel, twenty miles distant, on the
second of May without meeting any
opposition on the march.

Signal Guns Fired.

General Arista, attributing Taylor's
withdrawal to fear, determined to cap-
ture the fortification on the opposite
side of the river. On the third of May
he opened fire upon it from a heavy
battery at Matamoras, and sent a large
force across the Rio Grande, which took
position in the rear of the fort and in-
trenched themselves there. In the face
of this double attack the little garrions
defended themselves bravely, but at
length Major Brown fell mortally
wounded. The command devolved
upon Captain Hawkins, who now felt
himself justified in warning Taylor of
his danger, and began to fire the signal
guns agreed upon.

Taylor was joined at Point Isabel
by a small detachment, and his force
was increased to twenty-three hundred
men. He listened anxiously for the
booming of the signal guns from the
fort on the Rio Grande, and at length
they were heard. He knew that the
need of assistance must be great, as the
little band in the fort had held out so
long without calling for help, and he
at once set out to join them. He left
Point Isabel on the seventh of May, tak-
ing with him a heavy supply train. The
steady firing of the signal guns from
Fort Brown (for so the work was after-
wards named in honor of its gallant
commander) urged the army to its
greatest exertions.

Battle of Palo Alto.

On the 8th of May the Mexican army,
six thousand strong, was discovered
holding a strong position in front of a
chaparral, near the small stream called
the Palo Alto, intending to dispute the
advance of the Americans. Taylor
promptly made his dispositions to attack
them. His troops were ordered to drink
from the little stream and to fill their
canteens. The train was closed up, and
the line was formed with Major Ring-
gold's light battery on Ihe right, Dun-
can's battery on the left, and a battery
of eighteen-pounders in the center.

The artillery was thrown well in
front of the infantry, and the order was
given to advance. The Mexicans at
once opened fire with their batteries,
but the distance was too great to ac-
complish anything. The American bat-
teries did not reply until they had gotten
within easy range, when they opened a
fire the accuracy and rapidity of which
astonished the Mexicans.

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

59

Their lines were broken and they fell
back, and the Americans advanced
steadily through the chaparral, which
had been set on fire by the discharge of
cannon, until a new position within
close range was reached. Paying no
attention to the Mexican artillery, the
American guns directed their fire upon
the enemy's infantry and cavalry, and
broke them again and again. The battle
lasted five hours and ceased at nightfall.
It was fought entirely by the artillery
of the two armies, and was won by the
superior handling and precis'"'' i of the
American guns.

Flying Artillery.

The loss of the Mexicans was four
hundred killed and wounded ; that of
the Americans nine killed and forty-four
wounded. Early in the battle Major
Ringgold was mortally wounded and
died a little later. He was regarded as
one of the most gifted officers of the
army, and to him was chiefly due the
precision and rapidity of movement ac-
quired by the "flying artillery " of the
American army, which were so success-
fully tested during this war.

The American army encamped on the
battle-field, and the next morning. May
9th, as the Mexicans had retreated, leav-
iiig their dead unburied, resumed its
advance. In the afternoon the Mexi-
cans were discovered occupying a much
stronger position than they had held at
Palo Alto. Their line was formed be-
hind a ravine, called Resaca de la Palma,
or the Dry River of Palms. Their
flanks were protected by the thick cha-
parral, and their artillery was thrown
forward beyond the ravine and protected
by an intrenchment, and swept the road
by which the Americans must advance.

During the night fresh troops had
joined the Mexican army, and had in-
creased their force to seven thousand
men.

Taylor formed his line with the artil-
lery in the center. The artillery was
ordered to advance along the road com-
manded by the Mexican battery, and
the infantry were directed to move as
rapidly as possible through the chapar-
ral, and drive out the Mexican sharp-
shooters. The infantry executed this
order in handsome style, but the chapar-
ral was so dense that each man was
obliged to act for himself as he forced
his way through it. The Mexican bat-
tery was handled with great skill and
coolness, and held the center in check
until some time after the infantry had
forced their way close to the edge of
the ravine.

Charge of the Gallant Ma><,

At this juncture Captain May was
ordered to charge the Mexican guns,
and started down the road at a trot. As
he reached the position of the American
artillery, Ivieutenant Ridgely suggested
that May should halt and allow him to
draw the Mexican fire. Ridgely opened
a rapid fire on the Mexican guns, which
was answered immediately. At the same
moment May dashed at the Mexican
battery with his dragoons, and reached
it before the cannoneers could reload
their pieces. They were sabred at their
guns, and the battery was carried. Cap-
tain May himself made a prisoner of
General I^aVega, as the latter was in
the act of discharging one of the guns.

Leaving the battery to the American
infantry which now hurried forward to
secure it, the dragoons charged the
Mexican centre and broke it. The whole

60

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

American Hue then advanced rapidly ;
the Mexicans gave way, and were soon
flying in utter confusion towards the
Rio Grande, which they crossed in such
haste that many of them were drowned
in the attempt to reach the Mexican
shore.

General Arista, the Mexican com-
mander, fled alone from the field, leav-
ing all his private and official papers
behind him. The Americans lost one
hundred and twenty-two men killed and
wounded; the Mexicans twelve hun-
dred. All the Mexican artillery, two
thousand stand of arms, and six hun-
dred mules were captured by the Amer-
icans.

Americans Advance.

General Taylor advanced from the
battlefield to Fort Brown, the garrison
of which had heard the distant roar of
the battle, and had seen the flight of
the Mexican across the Rio Grande.

General Taylor was delayed at Mata-
moras for three months by the weak-
ness of his force ; but, as soon as rein-
forcements reached him, he prepared to
advance into the interior. His first
movement was directed against the city
of Monterey, the capital of the State of
New Leon, where the Mexicans had
collected an army. His army numbered
about nine thousand men of all arms, and
of these a little over twenty-three hun-
dred men were detached for garrisons,
leaving an active force of six thousand
six hundred and seventy men. On the
twentieth of August General Worth's
division marched from Matamoras, and
a fortnight later General Taylor set out
from the Rio Grande with the main
army. On the ninth of September the
American forces encamped within three
miles of Monterey.

Every means of defence had been ex-
hausted by the Mexicans. Forty-two
heavy cannon were mounted on the city
walls, the streets were barricaded, and
the flat roofs and stone walls of the
houses were arranged tor infantry. Each
house was a separate fortress. A strongly
fortified building of heavy stone, called
the Bishop's palace, stood on the side ol
a hill without the city walls, and on
the opposite side of the city were re-
doubts held by infantry and artillery.

On the morning of the twenty-first
of September the American artillery
opened fire on Monterey, and the in-
fantry advanced to carry the Mexican
works. The brigade of General Quit-
man carried a strong work in the lower
part of the town, and at the same time
General Butler, with a part of his
division, forced his way into the town
on the right.

At the Citadel.

During the night of the twenty-first
the Mexicans evacuated the lower part
of the city, but kept their hold upon
the citadel and the upper town, from
which they maintained a vigorous fire
upon the American positions. At day-
break, on the twenty-second. Worth's
division, advancing in the midst of a
fog and rain, carried the crest com-
manding the Bishop's palace, and by
noon had captured the palace itself. The
guns of the captured works were now
directed upon the enemy in the city
below.

The enemy had fortified the city so
thoroughly that the Americans were
not only forced to carry the various
barricades in succession, but were com-
pelled to break through the walls of the
fortified houses, and advance from house

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

31

to house in this way. One or two field
pieces were drawn up to the flat roofs,
and the Mexicans were driven from
point to point during the twenty-
second and twenty-third, until they
were confined to the citaded and plaza.
On the night of the twenty-third General
Ampudia opened negotiations, and on
the morning of the twenty-fourth surren-
dered the town and garrison to General

fierce charge than in volunteering to
make a dangerous ride under fire, in
search of ammunition.

The next important engi<.gement oc-
curred at Buena Vista, a village of
Mexico, seven miles south of Saltillo,
where on February 22d and 23d, 1847,
five thousand United States troops un-
der General Taylor defeated twenty
thousand Mexicans under Santa Anna.

LIEUT. UI^YSSES S. GRANT GOING FOR AMMUNITION AT MONTEREY.

Taylor. The Americans lost four hun-
dred and eighty-eight men, killed and
wounded, in the storming of Monterey.
The Mexican loss was much greater.

General Grant, then an unknown
young lieutenant, was in the battle of
Monterey, and distinguished himself on
account of " gallant and meritorious
services." Several times during the
battle he demonstrated his superior
judgment and courage, not more in the

The American loss in this battle was
two hundred and sixty-seven killed and
four hundred and fifty-six wounded.
That of the Mexicans was over two
thousand killed and wounded, includ-
ing many officers of high rank. Taylor
followed the Mexican army on the
twenty-fourth, as far as Agua Nueva,
and collecting their wounded, removed
them to Saltillo, where they were at-
tended by the American surgeons.

62

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

The victory of Buena Vista was de-
cisive of the war. It saved the valley
of the Rio Grande from invasion by
a victorious Mexican army, and enabled
the expedition of General Scott against
Vera Cruz to proceed without delay to
the accomplishment of its objects. It
also greatly disheartened the Mexican
people, and during the remainder of the
year Taylor's army had nothing to do
^nt tQ hold the country it occupied.

Scott's Expedition.

The expedition under General Scott
sailed from New Orleans late in No-
vember, 1846, and rendezvoused at the
island of lyobos, about one hundred
and twenty-five miles north of Vera
Cruz. The plan of operations for this
army was very simple — to capture Vera
Cruz and march to the city of Mexico
by the most direct route. At length
everything being in readiness, the ex-
pedition sailed from lyobos Island, and
on the morning of the ninth of March,
1 847, the army, thirteen thousand strong,
landed without opposition at a point
selected by General Scott and Commo-
dore Connor a few days before. The
city and vicinity had been thoroughly
reconnoitered, and the troops were at
once marched to the positions assigned
them by the commander-in-chief.

Vera Cruz is the principal seaport of
Mexico, and contained at the time of
the siege about fifteen thousand inhabi-
tants. It was strongly fortified on the
land side, and towards the Gulf was de-
ffended by the Castle of San Juan de
Ulloa, the strongest fortress in America,
with the exception of Quebec.

On the tenth of March the invest-
ment of the city was begun by General
Worth, and the American lines were

definitely established around the city
for a distance of six miles. During the
day, and for several days thereafter,
bodies of Mexicans attempted to harass
the besiegers, and a steady fire was
maintained upon them by the guns of
the castle and the city as they worked
at their batteries. The American works
being completed, and their guns in
position. General Scctt summoned the
city of Vera Cruz to surrender, stipula-
ting that no batteries should be placed
in the city to attack the castle unless
the city should be fired upon by that
work.

The demand was refused by General
Morales, who commanded both the
city and the castle, and at 4 o'clock on
the afternoon of the twenty-second of
March, the American batteries opened
fire upon the town. The bombardment
was continued for five days, and the
fleet joined in the attack upon the cas-
tle. The city suffered terribly ; a num-
ber of the inhabitants were killed, and
many buildings were set on fire by
the shells.

A Decisive Victory.

On the twenty-seventh the city and
castle surrendered, and were promptl}^
occupied by the Americans. Over five
thousand prisoners and five hundred
pieces of artillery fell into the hands of
the victors. The garrison were required
to march out, lay down their arms, and
v/ere then dismissed upon their parole.
The inhabitants were protected in their
civil and religious rights. The sur-
render was completed on the morning
of the twenty-ninth.

Having secured the city and the cas-
tle. General Scott placed a strong gar-
rison in each, and appointed General

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

63

Worth governor of Vera Cruz. He
tlien prepared to march upon the city
of Mexico, and on the eighth of April
the advance division, under General
Twiggs, set out from Vera Cruz towards
Jalapa. Deducting the force left to
garrison Vera Cruz, Scott's whole army
amounted to but eighty-five hundred

men.

Makes a Stand at Cerro Gordo.

Santa Anna had not found the conse-
quences to himself of the battle of Buena
Vista as bad as he had expected. He
had succeeded in pursuading his coun-
trymen that he had not been defeated in
that battle, but had simply retreated for
want of provisions, and they had agreed
to give him another trial. He had
pledged himself to prevent the advance
of the Americans to the capital, in the
event of the fall of Vera Cruz, and with
the aid of those of his countrymen who
were willing to support him had quelled
an insurrection at the capital, and had
strengthened his power to a greater de-
gree than ever. With a force of twelve
thousand men he had taken position at
Cerro Gordo, a mountain pass at the
eastern edge of the Cordilleras, to hold
the American army in check, and had
fortified his position with great skill
and care.

General Twiggs halted before the
Mexican position to await the arrival
of General Scott, who soon joined him
with the inain army. The Mexican
lines were carefully reconnoitered, and
on the eighteenth of April General
Scott, avoiding a direct attack, turned
the enemy's left, seized the heights com-
manding their position, and drove them
from their works with a loss of three
thousand pnsoners and forty-three pieces

of artillery. Santa Anna mounted a
mule, taken from his carriage, and fled
leaving the carriage and his private pa-
pers in the hands of the Americans.
Besides their prisoners, the Mexicans
lost over one thousand men in killed
and wounded. Scott's loss was four
hundred and thirty-one killed and
wounded.

The passes on the direct road to the
city had been well fortified and garri-
soned by the Mexicans, but the country
upon the flanks had been left unpro-
tected, because Santa Anna deemed it
utterly impossible for any troops to pass
over it, and turn his position. El Penon
the most formidable of these defences,
was reconnoitered by the engineers,
who reported that it would cost at
least three thousand lives to carry it.
Scott thereupon determined to turn El
Penon, instead of attacking it. The
city and its defences were carefully rec-
onnoitered, and it was discovered that
the works on the south and west were
weaker than those at any other points.

Americans Push Forward.

General Scott now moved to the left,
passed El Penon on the south, and by
the aid of a corps of skillful engineers
moved his army across ravines and
chasms which the Mexican commander
had pronounced impassable, and had
left unguarded. General Twiggs led
the advance, and halted and encamped
at Chalco, on the lake of the same name.
Worth followed, and passing Twiggs,
encamped at the town of San Augustin,
eight miles from the capital.

As soon as Santa Anna found that
the Americans had turned El Penon,
and had advanced to the south side of
the city, he left that fortress and took

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

position in the strong fort of San An-
tonio, which lay directly in front of
Worth's new position. Northwest of
San Antonio, and four miles from the
city, lay the little village of Churubusco,
which had been strongly fortified by the
Mexicans. A little to the west of San
Augustin was the fortified camp of
Contreras, with a garrison of about six
thousand men.

In the rear, between the camp and
the city, was a reserve force of twelve
thousand men. The whole number of
Mexicans manning these defences was
about thirty-five thousand, with at least
one hundred pieces of artillery of va-
rious sizes.

Desperate Struggle.

General Scott lost no time in moving
against the enemy's works. General
Persifer F. Smith was ordered to attack
the entrenched camp at Contreras, while
Shields and Pierce should move between
the Camp and Santa Anna at San An-
tonio, and prevent him from going to
the assistance of the force at Contreras.

At three o'clock on the morning of
August 20th, in the midst of a cold rain.
Smith began his march, his men hold-
ing on to each other, to avoid being
separated in the darkness. He made
his attack at sunrise, and in fifteen min-
utes had possession of the camp. He
took three thousand prisoners and thir-
ty-three pieces of cannon.

The camp at Contreras having fallen.
General Scott attacked the fortified vil-
lage of Churubusco an hour or two
later, and carried it after a desperate
struggle of several hours. General
Worth's division stormed and carried
the strong fort of San Antonio, and
General Twiggs captured another im-

portant work. The Mexicans outnum-
bered their assailants three to one, and
fought bravely. Their efforts were in
vain, however, and late in the after-
noon they were driven from their de-
fences, and pursued by the American
"cavalry to the gates of the city.

How the Victories Were Won.

These two victories had been won
over a force of thirty thousand Mex-
icans by less than ten thousand Amer-
icans, and a loss of four thousand killed
and wounded and three thousand prison-
ers had been inflicted upon the Mexican
army. The American loss was eleven
hundred men.

Santa Anna retreated within the city,
and on the twenty-first of August the
American army advanced to within
three miles of the city of Mexico. On
the same day Santa Anna sent a flag of
truce to General Scott, asking for a sus-
pension of hostilities, in order to ar-
range the terms of peace. The request
was granted, and Mr. Trist was de-
spatched to the city, and began nego-
tiations with the Mexican commission-
ers.

After protracted delays, designed to
gain time, the Mexican commissioners
declined the American conditions, and
proposed others which they knew would
not be accepted. Thoroughly disgusted,
Mr. Trist returned to the American
camp, and brought with him the intelli-
gence that Santa Anna had violated the
armistice by using the time accorded
him by it in strengthening his defences.
Indignant at such treachery, General
Scott at once resumed his advance upon
the city.

The Mexican capital was still de-
fended by two powerful works. One of

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

65

wounded — nearly one fourth the whole
American force engaged.

these was Molinodel Rey, " The Kmg's

Mill," a foundry, where it was said the

church bells were

being cast into

cannon; the

other was the

strong castle of

Chapultepec.

General Scott
.resolved to make
his first attack
upon Molino del
Rey, which was
held by fourteen
thousand Mexi-
cans. It was
stormed and car-
ried on the 8th
of September,
after a severe con-
test by Worth's
division, four
thousand strong.
This was regard-
ed as the hardest-
won victory of
the war. The
Mexicans were
nearly four times
as numerous as
the Americans,
and their posit ion
was one of very
great strength.
The Americans
fought principal-
ly with their ri-
fles and muskets,
their artillery be-
ing of but little
use to them, ow-
ing to the nature general SCOTT ENTERING THE CITY OF MEXICO.

• of their position." Their loss was seven | The castle of Chapultepec stood on a
hundred and eighty-seven killed and | steep and lofty hill, and could not be
5

66

WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO.

turned. If won at all, it must be by a
direct assault. On the twelfth of Sep
tember the American artillery opened
fire upon it, and reduced it almost to
ruins. On the morning of the thirteenth
a determined assault was made by the
Americans, and the castle was carried
after a sharp struggle.

Santa Anna's Retreat.

During the night of the thirteenth
Santa Anna, with the remains of his
army, retreated from the city, leaving
the authorities to make the best terms
they could with the conquerors. The
city officials presented themselves be-
fore General Scott before daybreak, and
proposed terms of capitulation. The
general replied that the city was already
in his power, and that he would enter
it on his own terms. The next day,
September 14, 1847, the American army
entered the city of Mexico, occupied
the grand .'■quare, and hoisted the stars
and stripes over the government build-
ings. Santa Anna retreated with four
or five thousand men from the capital
to the vicinity of Puebla, which was
besieged by a Mexican force. The city
contained eighteen hundred sick Amer-
icans, and was held by a garrison of
five hundred men under Colonel Childs.
This little force held out bravely until
the arrival of a brigade from Vera Cruz,
under General L,ane, on its way to re-
inforce General Scott. Lane drove off
Santa Anna's army, and relieved Puebla
on the eighth of October. Ten days
later Santa Anna was reported to be

collecting another force at Alixo. Lane
set out immediately for that place,
reached it by a forced march, and dis-
persed the Mexicans beyond all hope of
reunion.

Immediately after the capture of the
city of Mexico Santa Anna resigned
the presidency of the republic in favor
of Senor Pena y Pena, president of the
Supreme Court of Justice, but retained
his position as commander-in-chief of
the army. The fall of the city was fol-
lowed by the inauguration of a new
government, one of the first acts of
wliich was to dismiss Santa Anna from
the command of the army. He at
once left the country, and fled to the
West Indies.

Return of Peace.

3n the Fourth of July, 1848, Presi-
Polk issued a proclamation announcing
the return of peace. By the terms of
the treaty the Rio Crandewas accepted
by Mexico as the western boundary of
the United States and of Texas, and
that republic ceded to the United States
the provinces of New Mexico and Upper
California. For this immense territory
the government of the United States
agreed to pay to Mexico the sum of fif-
teen millions of dollars, and to assume
the debts due by Mexico to citizens of
the United States, amounting to the
sum of three and a half millions of
dollars. The treaty having been rati-
fied, the American forces were promptly
withdrawn from Mexico, and the two
countries resumed friendlv relations.

CHAPTER V.

The Great Civil War.

(^ I HE agitation upon the question of
* I slavery began about the year
1830, when William Lloyd Gar-
rison, of Boston, commenced the publi-
cation of a paper entitled " The Liber-
ator." The great object of this publica-
tion was to secure the immediate aboli-
tion of slavery throughout the United
States. It should be said that there
were advocates of this measure at the
beginning of the century, including
especially the Quakers.

As the anti-slavery sentiment grew
In the North the people of the South
more and more became alarmed, and pre-
pared to defend the institution which
they considered essential to their own
well-being. The result was that the
two great sections of our country be-
came in a large measure estranged, and
the statesmen of both North and South,
fearing that the disruption of the Union
would finally follow, exerted them-
selves to the utmost to prevent such a
calamity.

In 1 82 1 Missouri was admitted into
the Union, but the present limits of the
State were not established till 1 836. Its
admission was preceded by a long and
bitter political controversy between the
representatives of the North and South,
the former resisting its entrance as a slave
State. The discussion resulted in the
famous "Missouri Compromise," a mea-
sure strongly advocated by Henry Clay,
under which compact it was agreed
that slavery should be forever exchided
from all that part of Louisiana north of
36° 30' latitude, except Missouri. It
■was not foreseen at the time that this

measure would have an important bear-
ing upon the territory of Nebraska, in-
cluding what is now the State of Kan-
sas, but such was the case.

In 1850 California, to which the dis-
covery of gold had attracted a rush of
immigrants, was admitted as a non-slave
State. To pacify the South, the Fugi-
tive Slave Law was passed, which di-
rected the Federal authorities to return
slaves who had escaped to the North,
and also required citizens wherever the
slaves were found to aid in their cap-
ture. The North took great umbrage
at the enactment of this law, and the
anti-slavery sentiment grew rapidly.

Struggle in Kansas.

In 1854, in defiance of the Missouri
Compromise, the principle of " squatter
sovereignty" was applied to the two
great territories lying north of 36 de-
grees and as far as 30 degrees — Kansas
and Nebraska. The spirit of the North
was fully aroused, and anti-slavery men
poured into Kansas with the intention
of making it a free State, as Congress
had already decided that the question of
slavery should be left to the inhabitants
to settle by themselves. The State gov-
ernment was organized on a non-slave
basis, though it was not admitted as a
State until 1861.

This struggle led to the formation of
a new party in the North opposed to
slavery, although such opposition had
already shaped the policy to a large ex-
tent of the Whig party. The new party
adopted as its name that of Jefferson's
old party — Republican — and grew wiih

67

68

THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

marvellous rapidity. In 1856 a Presi-
dential election was held ; the Demo-
cratic candidate, Buchanan, was elected
by a majority of the electoral vote, but
Fremont, the Republican candidate, had
a large popular vote.

About this time an incident occurred
that greatly inflamed the anti-slavery
sentiment of the North. In his opinion
on what was known as the Dred-Scott
Case, Chief Justice Taney stated, among
other things, that a slave, or the de-
scendant of a slave, could not be a citizen
of the United States, and the Missouri
Compromise was unconstitutional.

Party Divided.

In i860, the Democratic party was
split in two sections, the soutliern or
ultra- slavery Democrats and the north-
ern or conservative Democrats. The
southerners demanded recognition by
the party of the duty of Congress to
protect slavery ; the northern Demo-
crats could not possibly agree to this.
In the face of a divided party, the Re-
publicans elected their candidate, Abra-
ham lyincoln, President. The North
was now much stronger in population
and wealth and growing stronger every
day. If the South remained in the
Union it would soon be at the mercy
of the North. The extreme southern
States determined to secede, hoping no
doubt that the northwest and California
would either join them or remain neu-
tral. But the newer States had been
largely settled by foreigners, to whom
the United States had been a star of
hope for many years, until frugality en-
abled them to emigrate thither. They
had no state pride, but were intensely
loyal to the country which was their
adopted home.

The northwest, California, and after
a struggle, Missouri, Kentucky and
Maryland, cast in their lot with the
North and East. About eight or nine
millions in the South stood against
twenty or twenty -two millions in the
North, with the resources of wealth
and increased production on the side of
the latter.

Mr. lyincoln was inaugurated March
4, 1 86 1. In his address he declared that
he had neither the right nor the desire
to interfere with slavery where it already
existed ; that no State could lawfully go
out of the Union ; and t\nt he should
maintain the laws and constitution of
the United States to the best of his
ability. The new administration was
beset with difficulties on every side, and
the condition of affairs seemed almost
desperate. Many of those who for years
had guided the "ship of state," and
who understood its workings, were now
foremost in advocating secession.

Appalling State of Affairs.

Mr. Lincoln's officers were new to the
business of the Federal government.
The treasury, by defalcation, was nearly
bankrupt. Few troops were within call ;
and the army had been almost broken
up by the surrender of detached forces
in the Confederate States, and the cap-
ture of munitions of war. The vessels
of the navy were sailing or at anchor in
distant waters, and numerous officers of
both the army and the navy were re-
signing their commissions on the ground
that they owed allegiance first to the
States from which they came.

Seven States had already revolted,
and others were ready to swell the num-
ber upon the first attempt to enforce
the Federal authority. The public offi-

THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

69

ces were largely occupied by persons
in sympathy with the secession move-
ment, and every step taken by the new
g^overnment was known at once to the
leaders of the Confederacy, and to crown
all, Mr. lyincoln was beset by a vast
horde of office-seekers eager to take ad-
vantage of the change of administration.
The President waited a month and
then notified Governor Pickens, of South
Carolina, that he should send supplies
to Fort Sumter at all hazards. This
announcement precipitated an attack
upon the fort. Major Anderson was
first summoned to surrender, but he re-
fused. At daybreak on the morning of
April 12, 1 86 1, the Confederacy began
its open conflict with the United States.
All the batteries around the fort opened
fire upon it; the fort replied, and the
bombardment continued for thirty-six
hours without loss of life on either side.
The ammunition of the fort was then
exhausted, and the works inside were
on fire.

The Old Flag Lowered.

Thereupon the United States flag, for
the first time in its history, was lowered
to insurgent citizens, and the garrison
capitulated. This event aroused the
North as if from a trance. Until now,
the mass of the people had refused to
believe in real danger ; but the first
shock of arms thoroughly convinced
them that the South was ready to fight,
and could not be curbed without war.
It did more than this. In the Northern
States party distinctions were for a
jtime swept aside ; there was but one
party worth the name — the party for
the Union. The Southern States were
no longer " erring sisters" to be coaxed
by concessions. The whole North called

loudly for the full exercise of the Fed-
eral power to compel the South to obe-
dience at the point of the bayonet.

The day after the evacuation of Fort
Sumter, President Lincoln called for
75,ooo volunteers for three months.
April 1 5. The response was so promptly
made that the first Massachusetts troops
began their march on the same day,
and in a surprisingly short time the
quota was full ; nay, it could have been
filled three or four times over, and the
many who were refused felt a keen dis-
appointment at not being allowed to
bear arms in defense of the Union.

State Sovereignty.

. the South, also, the effect of the
first conflict was correspondingly great.
To the ignorant masses it did not seem
possible that any other power could be
superior to that of their own State,-
while the more intelligent classes had,
from their childhood, imbibed the doc-
trine that State sovereignty was tht
foundation of civil liberty. Hence all
felt bound to follow the lead of their
State; and when the President of the
new Confederacy issued his call for men
it was answered, as in the North, hy
overflowing numbers.

Those southern States which had
wavered were now compelled to make
their choice. When Mr. Lincoln called
for troops the Governors of Arkansas,
Virginia, North Carolina and Tennes-
see refused to obey. North Carolina
and Arkansas then seceded, and joined
the Confederacy. In Tennessee and
Virginia "military leagues" were
formed with the Confederate States, by
which Confederate troops were allowed
to take possession of their territory, and
by their aid the question of secession

70

THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

was submitted to popular vote. Thus
the secession of these two States was ac-
complished in part, but not wholly.

The people of the Alleghany moun-
tains were loyal to the Union ; in east-
ern Tennessee they aided the Federals
as much as possible ; the opposition to
secession was so strong in the western
counties of Virginia that the inhabitants
refused to obey the convention which
passed the ordinance; they chose a leg-
islature which claimed to be the true
3-overnment, and at last formed a new
State which was admitted to the Union
in 1863, under the name of West Vir-
ginia. Even thus curtailed, Virginia
was a most important accession to the
Confederacy ; it increased its military
strength greatly, and at once became
the chief battle-ground of the war.

The Theatre of Oonflict.

The Confederate government was
moved from Montgomery to Richmond;
and since Washington was separated
only by the Potomac from the Confed-
eracy, it was clear that the great con-
test would be fought in the country
which lay between the two capitals.
Moreover, Virginia was the richest and
greatest of the slave States, and fur-
nished the Southern army with its
ablest leaders, many of whom — such as
Lee, Jackson, Johnson, and Ewell —
were opposed to secession, but thought
it right to shape their own course by
that of their State.

There was a strong anti-union element
in Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and
Delaware, and the most momentous re-
sults— involving, doubtless, the success
of the Union cause — were involved in
the action they would now take. Aside
from Virginia, Missouri was the most

powerful slave State, and her geograph-
ical position, with that of Kentucky
and Maryland, was of incalcuable mili-
tary importance. Had these three
States united with the Confederacy it
might have won the prize for which it
was contending — independence.

Missouri, however, did not break
away, though the issue was for some
time doubtful with her. Delaware cast
her lot with the Union. In Maryland
and Kentucky efforts were made to
maintain neutrality, but they were soon
induced to declare in favor of the Fed-
eral government. Kentucky, however,
had some of her sons in the Southern
ranks, among whom was John C. Breck-
inridge, a former Vice-President of the
United States, who became an officer
in the Confederate army.

The Federal government was in no
want of men, but the action of Secre-
tary Floyd had almost stripped it of
arms to equip them. Agents were sent
abroad to purchase guns, private manu-
factories were worked day and night to
produce them, and in a short time the
administration was able to call more
men into the field.

Not a Warlike People.

The N orthern people were unmilitary
in their habits and thoughts. They
had a militia, but it was poorly organ-
ized. The Mexican war had drawn
few volunteers from this section, and
the United States army was very small
and imperfectly equipped. The early
action of the Confederates also had
weakened it. There was, however, a
greater population to draw from than
at the South . There was also a wider
range of industry to supply the neces-
sary funds to carry on the war.

THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

71

South Carolina had, on the 14th of
[anuary, 1861, declared in her legisla-
ture that any attempt to reinforce Fort
Sumter would be regarded as a declara-
tion of war. April nth Governor Pick-
ens, in a note to Major Robert i\nder-
son, commanding Fort Sumter, ordered
him to deliver up the fort. Anderson
answered that he had no power to com-
ply, and, as already stated, refused.

The navy -yards of Brooklyn received
orders to have
vessels in rea-
diness to send
supplies to the
l^eleaguered
Fort Sumter,
in Charleston
harbor. Sup-
plies were sent
by the Star of
the West, but
did ijot arrive
in season, the
vessel having
retreated from
the liarbor af-
ter beiug fired
upon. These
were, in real-
ity, the first I^ORT SUMTER
hostile shots from the South on the
National flag, though the attack on
Fort Sumter is regarded as the begin-
ning of the war.

The attack was conducted by General
G. T. Beauregard, favorably known in
connection with the Mexican War, now
appointed to the chief commaud of the
Confederate forces. The assault was
opened at four o'clock of April 12th,
when was fired the first gun of the ter-
lible Civil War which ensued. The
fort wp.s surrendered on the afternoon

of the 13th, after Anderson and hi?
brave band of seventy men had fought
for thirty-six hours, exposed to death
by shot, shell and conflagration.

Major Anderson reported that he
" marched out on the 14th with colors
flying and drums beating, bringing
away company and private property,
and saluting our flag with fifty guns."
The men carried away the flag they
had defended. The same day and hour.

IN THE BEGINNING OF THE WAR.

four years afterwards, that memorable
flag was restored, and again waved over
the shattered remains of Fort Sumter.

The first blood of the war was shed
in the streets of Baltimore. Massachu-
setts and Pennsylvania troops on their
way to Washington were attacked by
a Baltimore mob, April 19, 1861, and
some of the soldiers killed. The popu-
lace, which syuipathized with the South,
declared that no Northern troops should
pass through the city. The railroad
was blocked up, bridges were burned,

72

THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

telegraph wires were cut- a"d all direct
communication with the North was
stopped, until the President sent a mili-
tary force from Annapolis to occupy
Baltimore and keep the road open. In
^ a short' time the active hostility of the
'people was overcome, and the national
capital made secure.

By July 4th the Confederates had
pushed their forces as far as Manassas
Junction, about thirty miles from Wash-
ington. Their line of defence was al-
ready marked out, and its length has
been estimated at eleven thousand miles,
including the Atlantic and gulf coasts.
It comprised the left bank of the Poto-
mac from Fortress Monroe nearly to
Washington ; from thence it extended
to Harper's Ferry, on through the
mountains of western Virginia and the
southern part of Kentucky, crossing
the Mississippi a short distance below
Cairo. From this point its direction was
through southern Missouri to the east-
ern border of Kansas ; then southwest,
through the Indian territory, and along
the northern boundary of Texas to the
Rio Grande.

Reliance on Cotton.

The area contained within this in-
terior line and the sea-coast was about
800,000 square miles, with a popula-
tion of over 9,000,000. It comprised,
also, the territory devoted to the raising
of cotton, an article necessary to the
manufacturing interests of the world.
It was upon this production that the
South relied largely for aid ; all the
munitions of war could be procured in
exchange for it ; and she believed it
would be a powerful factor in prevent-
ing the blockading of her ports.

In consideration of this fact, and also

that the Confederate line of sea-coast
was over three thousand miles in length,
with but one port of refuge for a block-
ading fleet about the middle of the line,
it scarcely seemed possible that a block-
ade could be maintained with any
marked degree of success. Neverthe-
less, the President issued a proclama-
tion, April 19, 1 861, declaring a block-
ade of all the southern parts, and the
Federal government proceeded to pur-
chase and arm a large number of mer-
chant vessels. But it could not at once
bring together a navy powerful enough
to keep vessels from entering or leaving
the blockaded ports. The South not
only sent out vessels laden with cotton
to the West Indies and to Europe, but
received in return military supplies of
all kinds.

To Destroy Oommerce.

Upon the appearance of Mr. lyin coin's
blockade proclamation, Mr. Davis issued
one also, granting letters of marque
and reprisal to private vessels, against
the commerce of the United States.
The governments of Great Britain and
France now issued proclamations of
neutrality, thus making the contest be-
tween the North and the South a civil
war, according to subsequent decisions
of the Siipreme Court.

At the meeting of Congress, July 4,
1 86 1, the Republicans had a majority
in both branches, the free States and
border States only being represented.
The House voted to devote its time
solely to the business connected with
the war. It supported the President's
proclamation closing the Southern ports
against commerce. Bills were passed
to define and punish conspiracy against
the United States, and to confiscate all

THE GREAT CIVIL WAR

73

private property, including slaves, em-
ployed against the Federal government ;
to authorize a loan; to call out 500,000
volunteers, and to appropriate money
for the army and navy.

Durinsf this session occurred the first
battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861. Gen-
eral Scott had been appointed com-
ma -.der-in-cliief of the Union forces.
The first military movements were in
the mountains of western Virginia, and
the success of the Union army there
led many people to suppose that in a
short time the rebellious States would
be compelled to obedience. Mr. Seward,
who was Secretary of State, was espec-
ially cheerful, and promised that the
war should be over in ninety days.
The newspapers and people generally
urged an immediate movement upon
Richmond.

First Great Battle.

Very few had any knowledge of the
difficulties before them, and General
Scott, pressed by public opinion, gave
the order to advance. This resulted in
the first serious battle of the war. The
Union forces were defeated, and re-
treated in a panic upon Washington.
Both armies were yet so new in military
training that the Confederates gained
nothing from their success.

This disaster opened the eyes of the
North, and the country settled down
into a more serious temper. Congress
was, more than ever, stimulated to in-
creased energy, and pledged itself to
vote any amount of money and any
number of men necessary to maintain
the Union. Propositions to consider
negotiations for peace were constantly
offered by extreme Democrats, and as
constantly rejected by large majorities,

on the ground that negotiation with
armed rebellion was unconstitutional.

General Scott, having resigned the
command of the Northern armies on
account of his age and infirmity, was
succeeded by General George B. Mc-
Clellan, whose successful campaign in
western Virginia had given him a high
reputation throughout the army. He
had a genius for organization, and pos-
sessed the unbounded confidence of
the people. He immediately set about
forming the first great army of the war
— the Army of the Potomac — at Alex-
andria, in preparation for a second ad-
vance.

Impatience of the North.

But the advance was delayed much
too long to suit the impatience of the
people and the administration ; and as
the winter 1861-62 passed away with-
out any forward movement, the expres-
sions of dissatisfaction became louder
and more general. The Confederacy
also spent the summer and autumn of
1 86 1 in organizing its northern Army
of Virginia, under General Beauregard.

In the autumn of 1861 a portion of
General Stone's command on the Upper
Potomac was sent on a reconnoissance
into Virginia, under Colonel Baker,
and, being attacked by the Confederate
general, Evans, at Ball's Bluff, was dis-
astrously defeated. Colonel Baker was
among the killed. Although Missouri
had not seceded, a strong party, with
which the governor was acting, wished
to carry it over to the Confederac)-. A
Confederate camp near St. lyouis was
broken up by Captain Lyon, of the
regulars, and the St. Louis arsenal was
saved to the government. The State
was afterward invaded by Confederates

74

thk great civil war.

from Arkansas, who were defeated by
Lyon (now a general) at Booneville,
June 17th, and by Sigel at Carthage,
July 5th.

A large force of Confederates under
McCullough and Price attacked Lyon
at Wilson's Creek, August loth. Lyon
was killed, and his command fell back
toward the center of the State. Price
with 20,000 men then attacked Lex-
ington, which was garrisoned by 2,000
Federal troops under Colonel Mulligan.
After an heroic defense of three days the
little garrison was compelled to surren-
der, September 20th, after their water
supply had been cut off for forty-eight
hours. General Fremont was now ap-
pointed to the command of the western
department He drove Price into the
southwest corner of the State, and was
about to give battle when he was super-
seded by General Hunter, November
2d. Hunter retreated to St. Louis,
with Price in pursuit ; but in a fort-
night Hunter was replaced by Halleck,
and Price was driven into Arkansas.

Families Divided.

Kentucky, like Missouri, was dis-
tracted by dissensions among its own
people, and by armies on both sides.
General Polk of the Confederate army
occupied Hickman and Columbus,
towns on the Mississippi. There was
also a Confederate force at Belmont,
Missouri, opposite Columbus. Ulysses
S. Grant, recently appointed a brigadier-
general of volunteers, now first came
into notice. He drove the Confederates
out of Belmont November 7th, but was
unable to hold the town because it was
commanded by the fortifications of
Columbus.

From the beginning of the war, the

Federal government was einbarrassed
by the question of fugitive slaves. Con-
gress had passed the act confiscating
slaves employed in service hostile to
the United States. While General Fre=
mont was in command of the forces of
the West, he had issued a proclamatior.i
declaring the slaves of Missouri Con-*
federates free men, but this was counter-
manded by President Lincoln, who did
not wish to estrange those slave-holders,
especially in Kentucky, who were still
loyal to the Union.

How Slaves Were Treated.

In Virginia, General Benjamin F.
Butler had declared that slaves were
"contraband of war," and, therefore,
liable to confiscation by military law.
But as yet the disposition of the North
was to subdue the South witliout inter-
fering with slavery ; and some Union
commanders restored to their- masters
the slaves who had escaped into the
Federal lines.

Formidable expeditions were fitted
out to recapture Southern harbors. A
combined land and naval force, under
General Butler and Commodore String-
ham reduced and occupied two forts at
Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina, at the
entrance to Albemarle and Pamlico
Sounds, August 29th, and Port Royal
harbor, near Beaufort, South Carolina,
was secured through the reduction of
Forts Walker and Beauregard by the
fleet under Commodore Dupont, No-
vember 7, and a land force under Gen-
eral Thomas W. Sherman. These suc-
cesses were of great value to the Federal
government. They not only closed im-
portant Southern ports, but they furn-
ished convenient stations for the block-
ading fleet.

THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

75

The "paper blockade," as it had
been called, was soon made a very
effective one along the whole length of
the Southern coast from the Potomac
to the Rio Grande, an achievement
which by many had been deemed im-
possible. Still, in spite of the watch-
fulness of the Federal navy, several
Confederate men-of-war and privateers
sailed out of port, and did much dam-
age to merchant ships. The practice of
" running the blockade " became a very
profitable business ; and notwithstand-
ing the danger of capture, which was
the case in many instances, the profits
on a single successful voyage were so
great that adventurers found they could
afford to take the risk.

Seeking Recognition Abroad.

As has been stated, the South de-
pended largely upon assistance from
abroad, and the southern leaders still
clung to the hope that they could pre-
vail upon Great Britain and France to
recognize the independence of the Con-
federacy. Two commissioners, there-
fore, Messrs. Mason and Slidell, were
sent by the Confederate government to
London and Paris. They ran the block-
ade, made their way to Havana, and
then embarked for England in the
British mail-steamer Trent.

Some distance out, the Trent was
overhauled by an American man-of-war
under Captain Wilkes, the two commis-
sioners were taken off, November, 1861,
and carried to Boston harbor, where
they were imprisoned in Fort Warren.
This action, which was illegal and un-
authorized, caused great excitement in
England, and came very near causing
a collision between the two countries.
Lord Palmerston made a peremptory

demand for the surrender of the prison-
ers. The American government had
already disavowed the act of Captain
Wilkes, which, though it was justified
by the British claim of the ' ' right of
search," was contrary to American
principles. The Confederate envoys
were tlierefore promptly released and
sent to England.

Jast before this occurrence President
Lincoln requested two confidential
agents to visit France and England in
order to help the Federal cause and
avert the danger of foreign war by their
influence with the governments and
with persons of distinction. The per-
sons selected for this delicate and im-
portant trust were Archbishop Hughes,
of New York, and Mr. Thurlow Weed.
They sailed in November, and rendered
very valuable service, Mr. Weed in Eng-
land, and the Archbishop in France.

War of Vast Magnitude.

At the beginning of 1862 the war had
assumed vast proportions. The num-
ber of men under arms on both sides
was nearly a million. The Confederates
held possession of the Mississippi river
from the Gulf of Mexico to the southern
boundary of Kentucky, and occupied a
chain of strong positions extending
thence through Tennessee and Ken-
tucky to the southwestern corner of
Virginia. Between the Alleghanies and
the Blue Ridge was the fertile Shenan-
doah Valley, often disputed by both
armies.

At the east the Confederates were
posted in great force between the Poto-
mac and the Rappahannock. Now that
Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky and
Missouri had been saved to the Union,
it was certain that the battle v/ould be

ARREST OF MASON AND ^UDE!.!. ON THE BRITISH STEAMER "TRENT"

76

THE GREAT CIVII. WAR.

77

fought out in the territory to the south
of them. The plan of the Federal au-
thorities was to open the Mississippi
and penetrate the Confederate line at
the west, while at the same time
McClellan attacked Richmond, and a
land and naval force continued the pro-
cess of capturing the southern ports on
the Atlantic coast.

Simon Cameron, who had been Secre-
tary of War, resigned January 20, 1862,
and was succeeded by Edwin M. Stan-
ton. All the Federal armies were to
move simultaneously on the 22d of Feb-
ruary, Washington's birthday, but this
order could not be strictly carried out.

Grant in the West.

The first advance was made in the
West. General Grant had entered Ken-
tucky from Illinois, and succeeded in
securing the mouths of the Tennessee
and Cumberland rivers, two streams
which were to serve as military high-
ways by which the Federal armies were
to penetrate into the heart of the Con-
federacy. The chief Confederate posi-
tions between the Mississippi river and
the Alleghan}'' mountains were Fort
Henry on the Tennessee, Fort Donel-
son on the Cumberland (both in Ten-
nessee), and Bowling Green and Mill
Spring in Southern Kentucky. This
\me of defence was in command of
General Sydney Johnston, with head-
quarters at Bowling Green. Here he
was confronted by General Buell's
army, the middle one of the three great
Federal armies, which came to be known
as the Army of the Cumberland.

Forts Henry and Donelson formed the
centre of the Confederate line, and was
confronted by Grant, whose troops after-
wards formed the army of the Tennes-

see. In January, 1862, General Thomas
with the left of Buell's force thoroughly
defeated the Confederate right at Mill
Spring. General Grant, aided by the
river fleet under Commodore Foote,
now assailed the centre. Fort Henry
was first attacked and reduced by the
gunboats before Grant had time to in-
vest it. The combined forces then as-
saulted Fort Donelson, which, after a
brave resistance, was captured Febru-
ary 1 6th with 15,000 prisoners.

The centre of the Confederate line
was now pierced, and Johnston and Polk
were compelled to retreat for fear of
being cut off. Columbus, Bowling
Green and Nashville were evacuated,
and the whole of Kentucky and most
of Tennessee were in the hands of the
Federals. General Buell occupied Nash-
ville ; a strong Union .party showed it-
self in Tennessee, and Senator Andrew
Johnson was appointed Military Gov-
ernor of the Slate.

A Terrible Battle.

The Confederates formed their second
line of defense along the railroad from
Memphis to Chattanooga, and began
massing their forces at Corinth, The
armies of Grant and Buell were to unite
and attack the enemy in his new posi-
tion. Grant moved up the Tennessee
river and halted at Pittsburg I^anding,
or Shiloh, about twenty miles from
Corinth, there to await the arrival of
Buell. Here Johnston made a brilliant
attack upon him with the intention of
crushing him before Buell could come
up.

A terrible battle was fought April

6th and 7th, in which the Confederate

leader, who was one of the slain, came

i very near effecting his purpose. But

78

THE GREAT CIVII. WAR

the Federal forces, though driven back
at nearly every point, stubbornly re-
sisted, and at the close of the first day
Buell's advance guard came upon the
scene. The next morning Grant, now
reinforced, assumed the offensive ; and
after a fight of several hours, the Con-
federates were driven back to Corinth.
While these operations were taking

captured for .everal weeks afterwards on
account of the slow advances of General
Halleck, who had assu/ned command
of the Federal forces at Ihat point.

Meanwhile a fleet under Farragut and
Porter, with a land force under Butler,
had been sent to attack New Orleans.
Farragut ran past the batteries and forts
at the entrance of the river, attacked

IR'OxM-CLAD

place in Tennessee, Commodore Foote
with his gunboats entered the Missis-
sippi with a small army under Pope,
and captured Island Number Ten on
the day of Grant's victory at Shiloh.
Two months later Fort Pillow was
abandoned by the Confederates, and
Memphis at once fell into the hands of
the Union army. The victory at Shiloh
decided the fate of Corinth, an import-
ant railroad center, though it was not

GUNBOAT.

and destroyed the ironclads which met
him, and captured New Orleans, which
was occupied by the army under But-
ler. Farragut with a part of his fleet
then pushed up the river, clearing away
all obstacles, passed the batteries at
Vicksburg, and met the Federal gun-
boats under Captain Davis above. Thus
the war in the West had been, so far,
marked by an almost unbroken series
of victories for the Federal armies.

THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

79

At the northern boundary of the
State of Mississippi the Union advance
stopped for a time ; but all was held that
had been won. To gain control of the
great river, it was necessary to take
Vicksburg, with its outpost, Port Hud-
son, which, between them, commanded
the entrance to the Red river, and thus
kept open the communications of the
eastern part of the Confederacy with its
States of Texas, Louisiana and Arkansas.

Moving on Vicksburg.

To capture Vicksburg would cut off
these States, and greatly cripple the
fighting power of the Confederate gov-
ernment. The occupation of Chatta-
nooga was also necessary to the success
of the Union arms. It would open the
way into Georgia, and prevent the Con-
federates from recovering any of the
lost ground in Tennessee.

While the South had met with de-
feat in the West, it was encouraged by
a suc^-ss in Hampton Roads. The
Confederates had taken the " Merri-
mac," a former frigate of the United
States navy, and transformed her into
an iron-clad ram, with sloping sides
and huge iron beak. On March 8,
1862, this strange-looking craft entered
Hampton Roads and attacked the Feb-
eral fleet lying there, which consisted
of five wooden ships of war. The Mer-
^^rimac destroyed the Cumberland, and
also compelled the frigate Congress to
surrender. At night she went back
to Norfolk.

The next morning she was seen com-
ing out again to complete the work of
destruction. Suddenly the Monitor,
a turreted iron -clad vessel, advanced to
meet her, and after an obstinate engage-
ment of several hours the Merrimac

was compelled to retire. These encoun-
ters were remarkable as the first engage-
ments between iron-clads and wooden
vessels, and between two iron-clads.
The result caused a revolution in the
navies of the world ; the day of wooden
war-vessels was seen to be over, and all
the great powers began at once the con-
struction of iron and steel vessels.

The military operations in Virginia
during the year 1862 offered a strong
contrast to the course of events in the
West. This was owing partly, no doubt,
to the superior ability of the Confeder-
ate commanders, as compared with their
antagonists, partly, because on the
Union side military affairs were too
much intermingled with politics.

Jackson Repulsed.

While General McClellan was organ-
izing a splendid army of 200,000 men
near Washington, General Banks was
ordered to occupy the Shenandoah val-
ley. He began his advance in Febru-
ary, and having, as he supposed, cleared
the valley of the enemy, set out with
his own corps proper to join McClellan.
As soon as he was gone, General Jack-
son, popularly known as " Stonewall
Jackson," hastened to attack the divi-
sion of Shields which remained in the
valley. After a desperate battle at
Kearnstown, March 23d, Jackson was
compelled to retire. Banks returned
to the valley, and Shields was sent to
join McDowell at Fredericksburg.

General Fremont now approached
from the West, in order to unite with
Banks near Stanton. To prevent this
Jackson formed the plan of attacking
the Federal forces in detail. He nearly
succeeded in getting into the rear oi
the main body with a much largei army

80

THE GREAT CIVIIv WAR.

than Banks could muster. By a hur-
ried retreat Banks reached and crossed
the Potomac, with the Confederate cav-
ah-y in close pursuit. Shields hastened
back to the valley, but his advance
guard was defeated at Port Republic,
June 8th, by Jackson, who, the same
day, had checked Fremont at Cross
Keys.

Having thus saved the valley to the
Confederates, and obliged the govern-
ment at Washington to detain for the
defense of the capital a large body of
troops which McClellan greatly needed
for other duty, Jackson joined the Con-
federate army in front of Richmond.

McOlellan's Advance.

General McClellan coc^ntrated the
.i.rmy of the Potomac between Wash-
ington and Manassas, as if intending
to advance against Richmond by that
route. He then withdrew his forces
and went by water to Fortress Monroe
in order to advance up the peninsula
between the James and York rivers.
Here he was held in check for a month
by Johnston at Yorktown, and when
McClellan was ready to take the place,
the Confederates retreated toward Rich-
mond. The Union forces followed, and
both armies concentrated around Rich-
mond.

McClellan gained the battles of Wil-
liamsburg, May 5 th, and West Point,
May 9th, and advanced within seven
miles of the city. A panic broke out
in the Southern capital, and the Con-
federate Congress adjourned in haste.
It was just at this time that Stonewall
Jackson, by his brilliant and daring
exploits in the Shenandoah Valley,
obliged the Federal government to
keep in front of Washington a corps

under McDowell which was about to
co-operate with McClellan by way of
Fredericksburg.

The movements of McClellan in-
volved the separation of the two wings
of his army by the little river Chicka-
hominy, which by a sudden rise was
changed into a wide stream. The Con-
federates under Johnston at once at-
tacked the Union left wing at Fail
Oaks and Seven Pines. A fierce battle
ensued, lasting two days; the result,
however, was a Union victory. John-
ston was wounded, and was succeeded
by Robert E. Lee, who retained com-
mand of the army of Virginia during
the rest of the war.

Plan Had to be Changed.

The absence of A/[cDowell, who was
expected to support McClellan' s right,
compelled a change ii>' the whole plan
of operations. Although lyee had been
repulsed in an attack on the Federal
lines at Mechanicsville, June 26th, he
fell upon them again at Gainer "VEiU the
day following, in overwhelming force,
and drove them across the Chicka-
hominy with severe loss. Jackson had
now reinforced Lee, and McClellan was
cut off from his base of supplies on
York river. Unable to re-unite his
wings and regain his base, the Union
general decided upon the difficult ma-
noeuvre of establishing another base on
the James river.

While effecting this change, the
Union troops were hard pressed by Lee
and Jackson, who, during the period
from June 26th to July ist, attacked
them at Golding's Farm, Savage's Sta-
tion, White Oak Swamp, Glendale, etc.,
and finally at Malvern Hill, where the
Confederates were signally repulsed.

THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

81

This was the last of a series of engage-
ments known as the "Seven Days' Bat-
tles," in the course of which McClellan
lost over 15,000 men. lyce suffered al-
most as much. The Union army had
now reached the James river, and estab-
lished itself in a position from which it
could not be driven.

Designs on Washington.

Lee and Jackson then turned their
attention toward Washington, which
was defended by an army under General
Pope. Pope's forces stretched along
the Rappahannock and Rapidan to the
Shenandoah Valley. General Banks
held a position at the western end of
the line, and was attacked by Jackson
at Cedar Mountain. Lee followed close
behind, and the two generals forced
Banks back and then attacked Pope.
McClellan received orders from Wash-
ington to join Pope, and a portion of
his forces came up in time to take part
in the second battle of Bull Run, Au-
gust 29th. Pope's army was put to
rout, Washington was threatened and
the whole country was wild with ex-
citement.

Lee now led his victorious army across
the upper Potomac and entered Mary-
land. McClellan, gathering up the
remnants of the two defeated armies,
followed and confronted the Confeder-
ates at Antietam creek. A desperate
struggle took place, September 17th.

It left each army exhausted, but the
victory remained with the Union forces.
The Confederates recrossed the Poto-
mac and retired up the Shenandoah
Valley.

The administration was dissatisfied
with McClellan's course, and his com-
mand was given to General Burnside.
The new commander at once moved
toward Richmond, proposing to cross
the Rappahannock at Fredericksburg.
Here he found Lee posted upon the
hills behind the town. Burnside crossed
the river, and, forming his army in
three divisions, attempted to storm the
heights, December 13th. It was a day
of terrible slaughter for the Federal
troops. They were repulsed with the
loss of twelve thousand men, the army
was demoralized, and retreated to the
north side of the river. Burnside was
then superseded by General Hooker.

The North Discouraged.

The close of 1862 thus found the op-
posing armies in nearly the same posi-
tions as at the beginning of the war.
At the North gloom and discourage-
ment prevailed. At the State elections
held in the autumn there was a majority
against the administration in several of
the Northern States, and the result of
the campaigns on the Potomac gave
great strength to the peace party, which
believed that the attempt to subjugate
the South ousfht to be abandonod.

CHAPTER VI.

End of the Great Civil War.

IN Jane, 1862, the great Union force
at Corinth was divided, Buell's
marchi'.ig eastward to seize Chat-
tanooga, while Grant's remained at Cor-
inth till it should be ready to start for
Vicksburg. The campaign was so
badly managed by Halleck that the
Confederates, under Bragg, seized Chat-
tanooga before Buell's arrival. They
were thus enabled to press him so vigor-
ously that he had to be largely rein-
forced from Grant's army.

Thus weakened. Grant was unable to
advance for several mouuhs. During
the summer of 1862 the Confederates
made a great effort to repair the disas-
ters they had suffered on the Tennessee
and Mississippi rivers by an invasion of
Kentucky. An army under Kirby
Smith moved from Knoxville, East
Tennessee, while another, under Bragg,
marched from Chattanooga. The Con-
federate general. Smith, defeated Gen-
eral Nelson near Richmond, Kentucky,
August 30th, and advanced toward the
Ohio, threatening Cincinnati. General
L/Cw Wallace, however, compelled him
to fall back to Frankfort.

Bragg in the meantime hastened
toward the city of Louisville. Buell,
leaving Nashville, by forced marches
reached the place one day ahead of
Bragg. Being reinforced, he slowly
pushed the Confederates back. Bragg
formed a junction with Smith at Frank-
fort, and four days later a severe but
indecisive battle was fought at Perry-
ville, October 8th. The Confederates
then retreated through Cumberland Gap.

During Bragg's campaign, the Con-
82

federate army in Mississippi unds*' Gen^
eral Van Dorn made an attempt to turn
Grant's left wing at Corinth, a :d thus
force him back down the Tennessee
River. This wing was commanded by
General Rosecrans, who defeated Price
at luka, a few miles from Corinth, Sep-
tember 19th. On October 4th Van
Dorn and Price together attacked Cor-
inth, but were repulsed by Rosecrans
with a loss of five thousand men, and
pursued forty miles.

Hard Fighting in Tennessee.

Soon after this Rosecrans superseded
Buell in command of the army of the
Cumberland. Bragg had advanced to
Murfreesborough, in Central Tennessee.
There Rosecrans attacked him, Decem-
ber 31st, and a bloody battle was fought,
in which 40,000 men were engaged on
each side, and each lost more than
10,000. This engagement is generally
known as the battle of Stone River. It
was indecisive. On January 2, 1863,
Bragg renewed the attack with great
vigor, but this time he was signally de-
feated, and compelled to retire to Chat-
tanooga.

While these battles were being fought
Grant had begun his first movement
against the strong and important post
of Vicksburg, on the Mississippi. His
plan was to march from Jackson, Missis-
sippi, while Sherman, with his 40,000
men, and Porter, with a fleet of gun-
boats, descended the river from Mem-
phis. The movements were made ac-
cording to this arrangement, but Van
Dora's cavalry succeeded in getting in

END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

83

Grant's rear and cutting off his sup-
plies. This compelled Grant to abandon
his march to Jackson. Sherman and
Porter attacked the bluffs north of
Vicksburg, but were repulsed with ^
:3eavy loss on December 29th. Hearing
/ Grant's misfortune, they returned to
Memphis,

After Hatteras Inlet to Pamlico Sound
had been captured, it was next resolved
to attack the Confederate position on
Roanoke Island, which commands the
passage between Pamlico and Albe-
marle Sounds. A land and naval expti-
dition under General Burnsideand Com-
modore Goldsborough took Hie forts
and batteries of the island February 8,
1862, captured a Confederate flotilla,
occupied Newberne, North Carolina,
March 14th, and reduced Fort Macon,
at Beaufort, April 25th.

Capture of Fort Pulaski.

Expeditions from Port Royal under
Commodore Dupont took possession of
Darien and Brnnswick, Georgia, and of
Jacksonville, Fernandina, and St. Au-
gustine, Florida. April 11, 1862, Gen-
eral Gilmore captured Fort Pulaski, on
the Savannah River. Thus the port of
Savannah was completely closed, al-
though no effort was made for some
time to occupy the city.

During the movement of the armies
in 1862, Congress had not been idle. It
was chiefly occupied in measures con-
nected with the prosecution of the war.
Its most far-reaching action was in the
provision for a uniform national cur-
rency. At the beginning of the war
the government had borrowed large
sums of money to defray expenses, and
it continued to borrow as new demands
arose. The result was similar to that

which occurred in the Revolutionary
War. The promises to pay became less
valuable as compared with gold, which
was the standard of value throughout
the civilized world.

The banks in the several States could
no longer obtain gold without paying a
high price for it: andatthe end of 1861
they suspended specie payments- In
order to provide a currency for the peo-
ple, a bill was passed by Congress early
in 1863 authorizing the issue of notes
by the United States Treasury. These
notes received the popular name of
"greenbacks," from the color of the
paper on which they were printed ; and
to insure their success they were de-
clared by Congress to be " legal tender,"
February 25, 1862. Early in 1863 Con-
gress passed an act establishing national
banks. Heretofore the States had in-
corporated all banks, and the bills of
each bank were seldom current except
in its own neighborhood. By the na-
tional banking system, the banks were
to be organized, and the United States
bonds deposited in Washington.

Special Legislation.

The banks were then permitted to
iriue notes up to ninety per cent, of the
value of the bonds deposited, and the
notes, being thus secured, became cur-
rent in every part of the country. A
homestead bill was passed, which as-
signed public lands to actual settlers at
reduced rates. Congress also prohibited
sla\ery in the District of Columbia;
slaves of insurgents were ordered to be
confiscated ; and the army was forbid-
den to surrender fugitive slaves to their
masters. It provided for the construc-
tion of a Pacific railroad and telegraph,
and began a further development of the

84

END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

system of granting public lands to rail-
way corporations.

The abolition sentiment had spread
very rapidly in the North, and it had
now become supported by the military
needs of the hour. At the beginning
of the conflict the Union leaders and
people generally had not favored any
interference with slavery, but circum-
stances had proved their position to be
untenable. President L<incoln, who
watched anxiously every movement,
was convinced that the time had come
when the Federal government could
no longer attempt to carry on the war
successfully and spare the system of
sla^'ery.

Vexed Question of Slavery.

He therefore announced, September,
1862, that unless the revolting States
should return to their allegiance by Jan-
uary 1 , 1 863, he should declare the slaves
in these States to be free. It was a formal
notice given out of respect to law ; no
one seriously expected that it would be
regarded by the Confederate States.
And it was not. They only grew more
firm in consequence of the action taken.
On the ist day of January, 1863, in ac-
cordance with his notice, the President
issued his celebrated Proclamation of
Emancipation.

This act caused much discussion. Mr.
Ivincoln could not, legally, issue such a
declaration, for the Constitution gave
him no authority to abolish slavery. But
he acted on the principle of military
necessity, advocated by John Quincy
Adams in his speech of April 14, 1842,
in which he said: "Whether the war
be civil, servile, or foreign, I lay this
down as the law of nations: I say that
the military authority takes for the time

the place of all municipal institutions,
slavery among the rest. Under that
state of things, so far from its being true
that the States where slavery exists have
the exclusive management of the sub-
ject, not only the President of the United
States, but the commander of the army
has power to order the universal eman-
cipation of slaves."

The events of the preceding summer
had shown that the war was far from
being at an end. The cutting off of the
cotton supply had been a general calam-
ity, and the distress produced in conse-
quence created a fear lest England and
France should unite in an attempt to
put an end to the contest. But the
proclamation changed all this. By it
the struggle was converted into a cru-
sade against slavery, and in this light
foreign intervention was now simply
impossible, owing to Great Britain's
attitude towards slavery.

Negro Regiments.

Moreover, should the Federal govern-
ment be successful, the question of
slavery would practically be settled for-
ever, for its abolition would be certain
when the Union was re-established.
One of the first results of the act was
the formation of regiments of negro sol-
diers. An attack made by one of these
regiments, under Colonel Shaw, upon
Fort Wagner, in Charleston harbor,
though unsuccessful, showed so much
bravery that the prejudice against negro
soldiers disappeared, and great numbers
were enrolled.

General Hooker spent three months
in reorganizing and strengthening the
Army of the Potomac. At the end of
April, 1863, he began his march toward
Richmond with 120,000 men. Sending

BATTLE OF CHANCELLORSVILLE-TACKSON'S ATTACK ON THE RIGHT WING.

8'3

END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

the sixth corps, under Sedgwick, to cross
the Rappahannock below Fredericks-
burg, he threw his main body across the
river a few miles higher up, and before
Lee understood his purpose he had ad-
vanced to Chancellorsville. Here Lee
won one of the most marked of his vic-
tories, May I to 4, with only one-half
as many men as Hooker commanded.

Battle and Heavy Losses.

Jackson made a magnificent attack
upon the Union right, taking it by sur-
prise, and drove it back in confusion.
Sedgwick, on the left, had carried the
lieights of Fredericksburg, and was
pushing on toward Chancellorsville,
when the disaster on the right enabled
Lee to face him with the main Confed-
erate force. Sedgwick was compelled
to retire during the night which fol-
lowed the 4th of May, and Hooker re-
crossed the Rappahannock the next
night. Hooker's loss was 16,000 ; Lee's
was 12,000 ; but the Confederates fur-
ther sustained a severe disaster in the
death of Stonewall Jackson.

Lee now repeated the manoeuvre he
had practiced after defeating General
Pope. Turning Hooker's right flank,
he pushed on through the western part
of Maryland into Pennsylvania, so as to
threaten Philadelphia, Baltijnore, and
Washington. There was intense alarm
at the North, and reinforcements were
hurried into Pennsylvania from all
quarters. In consequence of a disagree-
ment with General Halleck, Hooker
resigned the command of the Army of
the Potomac, and it was given to Gen-
eral George G. Meade.

The hostile armies, each in full
force were now moving in parallel
lines, with the Blue Ridge and South

Mountain range between them. On the
1st of July they came into collision at
Gettysburg. A tremendous battle was
fought, la-^ting until the close of Julv
3d. It resulted ia the defeat of Lee,
with a loss of about 23,000 men;
Meade's loss was about the same. This
battle was one of the greatest of modern
times, the loss on both sides being very
heavy in proportion to the whole num-
ber engaged. It was also the turning
point of the Civil War.

The South was never able to collect
so fine an army again, and never re-
covered from the exhaustion of the Get-
tysburg campaign. Lee moved slowly
back to his old position on the Rapidan,
where he and Meade held each other in
check until the following spring. Many
in the North were inclined to believe
that Lee's former successes had been
due to Stonewall Jackson's ability, and
that he had lost his prestige upon the
death of that brave commander. But
the campaign of 1864 was to prove the
contrary.

Grant's Victory at Vicksburg.

On the next day after the battle of
Gettysburg, General, Grant gained a de-
cisive victory on the Mississippi. Hav-
ing failed in several attempts to take
Vicksburg from the North, he now de-
termined to transfer his army to the
south side of this strongly- fortified place.
To do this it was necessary to cross the
river, march down its west bank, cross,
again below Vicksburg, and march up
the east bank, while the fleet, which
had run past the batteries of Vicksburg
after the capture of New Orleans, would
have to pass them again in order to
transport the army over the river and
protect the crossing.

END OF THE GREAT CIVIIv WAR.

This plan was carried out in April.
Commodore Porter performed his task
successfully under a heavy fire, and on
the 29th of April opened a cannonade
upon Grand Gulf, at the mouth of the
Big Black River, where it had been de-
termined to attempt a crossing. The
Confederate batteries here proving too
strong, the fleet ran past them also, and
the crossing was made at Bruinsburg, a
few miles below. Grant now pushed
rapidly forward. The Confederates were
beaten at Port Gibson, and compelled
to evacuate Grand Gulf. McPherson
and Sherman captured Jackson, the cap-
ital of Mississippi, and a place of great
military importance, on account of its
railway connections.

Surrenders After Long Siege.

The Union army then turned, fell
upon the Confederate general, Pember-
ton, who had marched out of Vicks-
burg to unite with Johnston, defeated
him at Champion Hills May i6th, and
at the crossing of the Black River May
17th, and at last shut him up in Vicks-
6urg. After a siege of forty -five days
Pemberton surrendered, and the great
Confederate stronghold of the West,
with 27,000 prisoners, fell into the
hands of the victorious Federals.

Port Hudson, u.nder siege at the same
time, could no longer hold out, and the
Mississippi, as President lyincoln said,
"ran unvexed to the sea." This was
the heaviest blow that the Confederacy
had as yet received ; its whole western
,one was now virtually conquered, and
it became possible to concentrate greater
Union forces against its middle and
eastern zones. The news of Gettysburg
ind Vicksburg made the Fourth of July,
1S63, a day of rejoicing in the North,

and of mourning in thousands of be-
reaved homes.

The Vicksburg campaign marked the
decline of the Coniederate fortunes in
the West, as the Gettysburg campaign
did in the Bast. In the meantime the
people had learned to give a more care-
ful attention to the welfare of the sol-
diers who were bearing the brunt of the
conflict. The Sanitary Commission, the
Christian Commission, and other volun-
tary associations, had been organized,
and were doing a grand work for the
moral and physical needs of the men in
the field ; and this care was not confined
solely to Northern troops, but was often
extended to the Confederates as well.

The expenses of the national govern-
ment ^or prosecuting the war now
amounted to $2,000,000 per day on an
average, and notwithstanding the heavy
taxation imposed upon the country, the
debt had increased to $500,000,000 by
June, 1862 ; during 1863 it was double
that amount; by June, 1864, it had
grown to $1,700,000,000, and at the end
of August, 1865, it attained its max-
imum, $2,845,907,626.

Money Carefully Spent.

But the best of care and judgment
was exercised in the use of these vast
expenditures. The army was constantly
supplied with improved weapons and
munitions of war ; the blockading fleets
were kept in perfect order, and every-
thing was done to insure the success of
the Union arms.

As early as April, 1862, the Confed-
erate Congress had passed a conscrip-
tion act, enrolling in the army all adult
white males below a certain age, but as
the war went on the demand for men
I became continually greater, and the

END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

conscription was made more sweeping.
Toward the end of the war every white
man between the ages of seventeen and
fifty-five was held liable to military ser-
vice, and in practice the only limit was
physical incapacity.

The Federal government also was
compelled to take almost a similar
course. In March, 1863, Congress passed
an act for the enrollment of all able-
bodied male citizens between the ages
of eighteen and forty-five, and the Pres-
ident was authorized to make drafts for
military service, those between twenty
and thirty-five to be first called upon.
Under this law a call for 300,000 troops
was made in May. As the full number
was not made up by volunteering a draft
was ordered to supply the deficiency.
The first attempts to carry it out re-
sulted in forcible resistance in many
places, the most notable being the
'' draft riots" in New York city in July,
just after the battle of Gettysburg.

Riots in New York.

These riots lasted four days in that
city. During this time New York was
in the hands of a lawless mob, man\-
shocking murders were committed and
^2,ODO,ooo worth of property was de-
stroyed. All opposition was at length
put down, but exemptions and substitute
purchases were freely permitted, and
the States endeavored to fill their re-
spective quotas as far as possible by
offering bounties as a stimulus to x'olun-
t'^^ring.

After his renowned victory near Mur-
freesboro, Rosecrans remained quiet for
a period, preparing for a new campaign.
Late in June he began a series of skill-
ful mo\'ements against Bragg which
compelled the Confederate general to

fall back upon Chattanooga. Early in
September Rosecrans forced him to
evacuate the place by threatening his
communications. The Union general
followed him across the Tennessee river
and was thus beyond the strong posi-
tion of Chattanooo^a. General Bragfor,
having been heavily reinforced from
Virginia, turned at Chickamauga creek
to give battle.

The Heroic Thomas.

A severe engagement was fought,
September 17-20, 1863, in which Long-
street, who had come to the aid of Bragg,
routed the right of the Union forces;
but the wonderful skill and bravery
of General Thomas, who commanded
the left wing, saved the Federal army
and secured its retreat to Chattanooga.
Bragg, having gained possession of the
mountains around the place, cut off" al-
most all avenues of further retreat and
laid siege to Chattanooga. The govern-
ment at Washington had committed
the mistake of dividing the Union
forces, for while Rosecrans was left *.o
face an army greatly superior in num-
bers, under General Bragg, General
Burnside was sent into east Tennessee
with an independent command.

Bragg was now so sure of Rosecrans'
defeat that lie dispatched Longstreet
with apart of his army to attack Burn-
side at Knoxville. In October Rose-
crans was superseded by Thomas, and
Grant was put in command of all the
western armies. He was joined at Chat-
tanooga by two corps under Hooker from
the Potomac. General Sherman came
up from Vicksburg with a greater pari
of the arm}' of the Tennessee. Bragg's
positions on Lookout Mountain and
Missionary Ridge were now assaulted,

90

END OP THE GREAT CIVIE WAR.

The former was successfully stormed
by Hooker, November 24tli, part of the
fighting taking place amidst a thick
mist which covered the summit, hence
this has been called the "battle above

ston. Longstreet raised the siege of
Knoxville and retreated across the
mountains into Virginia to join Lee.

Many attempts had been made to re-
duce Charleston, South Carolina, the

' \m---

EONGSTREET'S ARRIVAL AT
the clouds." On the next day Mission-
ary Ridge was carried by the main
army. Hooker on the right, Thomas in
the centre and Sherman on the left.
Bragg was driven from all his positions
back to Dalton, and was soon after-
ward superseded by General J. E John-

BRAGG'S HEADQUARTERS.

strongest, as well as the most important
of the Southern seaports, but without
success. At length Fort Wagner was
taken, September 7tli, after a tremend-
ous bombardment by the Federal fleet
and Gillmore's batteries ; Fort Sumter,
also, was reduced to ruins The block-

•END OF THE GREAT CIVII. WAR

91

ading vessels were thus enabled to enter
the harbor, and the port of Charleston
was enth'ely closed.

Taking advantage of every loophole
in the British foreign enlistment act,
the Confederate authorities had suc-
ceeded in fitting out several formidable
cruisers, which, in the course of the
year 1863, did immense damage to
American commerce. Whenever they
were closely pursued by United States
vessels they took refuge in neutral ports,
and then put out to sea again upon the
first favorable opportunity. The most
active ones were the Florida, the
Alabama and the Georgia. The Flor-
ida, built at Liverpool, after hav-
ing captured twenty- one vessels, was
seized in the harbor of Bahia, Brazil,
October, 1864. The Georgia was built
at Glasgow, put to sea in April,
but was captured after a short cruise
by the United States frigate Niagara.
The more important of the Confederate
cruisers was the Alabama. She was
built at Liverpool for the Confederate
captain, Semmes.

Allowed to Escape.

The British government was urged
by the American minister, Mr. Adams,
to enforce its own laws, and prevent her
going to sea ; yet she was allowed to
set sail in July. After destroying more
than sixty vessels, she was met by
the United States steamer Kearsage,
commanded by Captain "Winslow, oif
Cherbourg, June 19, 1864, and after an
hour's action the Alabama was sunk.

At the beginning of 1864, several
detached operations were carried on
which, though attracting much atten-
tion at the time, had but little direct
bearing upon the closing campaigns of

the war. General Sherman made his
raid nearly across the State of Missis-
sippi, destroying railroads, bridges and
supplies. General Seymour, leading a
Union expedition into Florida, was de-
feated. General Banks was sent up the
Red river to attack Shreveport, an(^
bring away cotton. The expeditioil
ended in failure and disaster.

General Rosecrans was appointed to
command in Missouri. He succeeded in
repelling an invasion by Price, who was
finally driven from the State. General
Forrest, with a Confederate force, made
a raid into Tennessee and Kentucky,
and captured Fort Pillow, April 12th,
where a number of negro troops were
massacred.

New Commander-in-Chief.

The success of Grant in the west had
made him the chief figure in the war.
In March, 1864, he superseded Halleck
as commander-in-chief, with the rank
of lieutenant-general. He at once took
personal direction of the campaign
against Richmond, while retaining
Meade in immediate command. The
army of the Potomac was re-organized
in three corps, under Hancock, Warren
and Sedgwick, to which was soon added
another under Burnside, while General
Philip Sheridan was called from the
west, and appointed to the command of
all the cavalry in the eastern army.

Lee's forces, which comprised the
flower of the Southern troops, had other-v.
wise been divided into three corps, unl
der Generals A. P. Hill, Bwell and
Longstreet. Sherman had been left in
command of the three v/estern armies
of the Ohio, the Cumberland, and the
Tennessee, and he was to oppose John-
ston at Dal ton. According to arrange-

92

END OF THB GREAT CIVII, WAR.

f

ment, a simidtaneous advance was made in Georgia and

Virginia, early in May.
The army of the Potomac, numbering about 125,000

men (nearly twice as many as IvCe's),

crossed the Rapidan and entered the

"Wilderness" on the other side. It
was Grant's object to push through this
difficult country as rapidly as possible
and get between Lee's army
and Richmond. In pursniuij '
the direct route through Fit d- *"
ericks- ^ l ^ t 1

burg to.... 1, ^^ ,, ^..; ..' . r^-'lV

Rich-
mond,

\,

[r If

^

Af' Ht

.>?«• I

y

the Union
, " army encoun-
tered a series of
strong defensive po-
sitions, of which I^ee
availed himself with con-
. ^^ '^1 p summate skill. The bat-
->>^ ^'■^ "-^^^ began on the 5 th, and
^,>«55>>i:i-^^ continued until the 12th

without interruption, both
WOUNDING OF GENERAL LONGSTREET BY sides fighting with the

HIS OWN MEN. utmost bravery.

KND OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR

93

It was during these engagements that
General Longstreet was disabled by an
unfortunate blunder of his own troops.
They mistook him and his men for
Union cavalry and fired a volley at
them. Longstreet waved his hand and
shouted to them to stop firing. They
did so, but not until a bullet passed
through his throat, coming out at the
shoulder. He fell from his horse, and

Anna and Cold Harbor In whic.i the
Union losses were terrible. Having now
reached the Chickahominy, and finding
it impossible to break through Lee's
lines of defense, Grant crossed the river
and moving far to the right of his ad-
versary, transferred his army beyond
the James to assail Richmond from the
south.

This involved the reduction of the

BATTLE OF COLD HARBOR.

was believed to be dead. Such a
calamity spread dismay for a time in
the Confederate ranks. ■ Longstreet was
only badly wounded and was disabled
for the remainder of the campaign.

Lee was steadily forced back, and on
the 9th Grant was clear of the Wilder-
ness with his forces concentrated near
Spottsylvania court-house. Here there
was furious and obstinate fighting for
ten days, with scarcely any intermission.
Then followed the battles of North

strongly-fortified town of Petersburg, on
the Appomattox, practically a part of
the defenses of Richmond, from which
it was twenty miles distant. It also
brought the Federal lines into dangerous
proximity to Lee's railroad communi-
cations with the south. At this point,
therefore, the Confederate commander
stationed the best part of his troops, and
stubbornly resisted all Grant's efforts to
extend his lines further to the south-
west or to reach the railroads.

94

END OF THE GREAT CIVIIv WAR.

A long siege of Richmond and Peters-
burg was now begun early in June, but
neither army remained inactive. In
July, Lee sent Early into the Shenan-
doah valley, with a corps strong enough
to menace Washington, hoping that
Grant might be induced to call off
troops from Petersburg. The chief re-
sult of Early's movement was the burn-
ing of Chambersburg, and the capture
of a quantity of supplies. Grant put
Sheridan in command of the valley,
who defeated General Early at Win-
chester, September 19th, and at Fisher's
Hill two days later, after which he de-
stroyed all the rich crops in the valley
and carried off the cattle, so that the
Confederates might not be tempted to
"^epeat the raid.

Battle of Oedar Creek.

Br"-. Early, having obtained fresh
troop, ""uddenly fell upon the Federals
at Cedar Creek, October 19th, driving
them back in great confusion. Sheridan
was absent when the battle was fought,
but, getting intelligence of it, he rode
rapidly up the valley, rallied his men,
who w^re, however, being enheartened
by their respective commanders, and
scattered Early's forces, which never
met Sheridan again as a compact army
during the remainder of the war.

Meanwhile, Grant had succeeded in
getting possession of a few miles of the
Weldon railroad, upon which Lee de-
rpended for transportation, but the Con-
federate general brought his supplies in
wagons round that portion held by the
Federals. The two armies now re-
mained in comparatively the same posi-
tion until the following spring.

The western campaign in 1864 began
at the same time as Grant's movement

in Virginia. Sherman advanced from
Chattanooga with 100,000 men under
Thomas, McPherson, and Schofield,
against Johnston's force of 75,000. The
objective point of the campaign was
the capture of Atlanta, Georgia, a very
strongly fortified place about one hun-
dred miles south of Chattanooga, and
the chief manufactory of the Confederate
military supplies. Johnston, with his
weaker force, dared not risk a regular
battle, but he made the best use of vari-
ous defensive positions which therough
and mountainous country afforded.

Sherman's Brilliant Tactics.

By a series of masterly flank move-
ments Sherman compelled him to evac-
uate one position after another. On May
14th the warrior-bishop, Leonidas Polk,
was killed by an exploding sheik while
standing with Johnston and Hardee on
the crest of Pine Mountain. Severe
battles were fought at Resaca, May 15th;
Dallas, May 25th; Lost Mountain, June
14th, and Kenesaw Mountain, June 27th.
By the loth of July Johnston was in-
trenched behind the defences of Atlanta,
and the two armies were facing each
other with the Chattahoochee river be-
tween them. Johnston's retreat had
been conducted with great skill, but he
was now superseded by Hood, July 17th,
who was known as a " fighting general."
Hood at once proceeded to carry out the
active policy of the Confederate govern-
ment, and assumed the offensive. Before
the end of the month he had made three
furious assaults on the Union lines and
was repulsed in every one of them.

The Federals, however, sustained a
heavy loss in the death of General Mc-
Pherson. At length, by fine manoeuver-
ing, Sherman succeeded in gaining the

END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

95

fear of Atlanta, and cutting the supply
railroads. This obliged the Confed-
erates to retreat in all haste, and
on the 2d of September, Sherman
was able to telegraph to
Washington that Atlanta
was won, "% 'T^^-

federacy. He moved northwestward
by Tuscumbia and Florence into mi'^-

DBATH OF GENFvRAL POLK.

Hood, by the command of Davis, now
made a fatal mistake, which materi-
ally hastened the downfall of the Con-

die TenneS'

«^ce, thinking

that Sherman

would follow

;^ ■■» . l^^wv///"' him in ordei

' to d fend that State. But Sher

111 in was no more to be controlled

>\ this device than Grant had

nil by Early's raid into the

"^unandoah. He divided his

mil , sending back part of it

1111 1 r Thomas to take care of

II) 1, while he himself prepared

t<» continue his advance through

>eorgia. Hood, moving north-.

waru toward Nashville, was met

and defeated at Franklin, No*

vember 30th, with heavy loss, by Scho-

field. The Confederate general arrived

at Nashville with about 44,000 men.

96

END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

The Union forces awaited him there
behind the fortifications. Thomas, hav-
ing completed his preparations, suddenly
moved out of his works and fell upon
the Confederate lines, December 15th.
The battle lasted two days and ended
"n the utter rout and demoralization of
lood's forces. Thus one of the two
great armies of the Confederacy was
scattered, never again to be united. Of
all the battles fought in the course of
the war, this was the most complete
victory.

Presidential Election.

While these things were going on,
the presidential election of 1864 took
place. Some of the more radical men,
dissatisfied with what they called Mr.
Lincoln's timid and irresolute policy,
met in convention. May 31st, at Cleve-
land, Ohio, and nominated John C. Fre-
mont for the Presidency. Mr. Lincoln
and Andrew Johnson were nominated,
June fi^lij for President and Vice-Presi-
dent by the Republican National Con-
vention at Baltimore.

The Democratic National Convention
declared in its platform that the inabil-
ity of the Federal government to restore
the Union by war was demonstrated by
four years of failure ; that the constitu-
tion had been violated in all its parts
under the plea of military necessity ;
and that a cessation of hostilities ought
to be obtained. It nominated George
B. McClellan and George H. Pendleton
as President and Vice-President.

This declaration of the peace Democ-
racy that the war was a failure, when
all things were now pointing toward the
final success of the North, caused many
doubtful votes to be cast for the Repub-
lican candidates, and assured their elec-

tion. When the electoral votes were
counted, Lincoln and Johnson had re-
ceived 212; McClellan and Pendleton
received 21.

Sherman had burned Atlanta, de-
stroyed the railroads and telegraphs in
his rear, sent back the sick and wounded,
and much of the baggage, and set out,
November 14th, on his " famous march
through Georgia." His army, 65,000
strong, was spread out over a breadth of
forty miles, subsisting mainly on the
produce of the country. For a month
scarcely anything was heard of him at
the North, when he suddenly turned up
at Savannah, Ga. He had met with but
little opposition on his route. The Con-
federates had numerous bodies of troops
which might have been concentrated to
oppose his march, but he had threatened
so many points, and kept the enemy in
so much doubt as to his objects, that
they could not tell for which point he
was making.

A Christmas Gift.

On December 13th Fort McAllister
was taken by assault, and on the 20th
Savannah was evacuated by the Confed-
erates, Sherman sending the news of the
captureto President Lincoln as a "Christ-
mas gift." He also sent word that the
Confederacy was nothing but a shell,
and that he was ready with his victorious
army to march northward.

The only important ports, except Gal-
veston, which remained open to the Con-
federacy in the summer of 1864, were
Mobile, in Alabama, and Wilmington,
in North Carolina. The forts command-
ing the entrance to Mobile bay were
captured, August 5th, and the port was
closed. On January 16, 1865, Wilming-
ton, North Carolina, was taken by a

END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

97

eombined land and naval force, under
General Terry and Commodore Porter.
On the day before tins event, Sherman
had begun his northward march, pass-
ing through Columbia to Fayetteville,
North Carolina.

This movement had forced the evacu-
ation of Charleston and other coast cities,
and their garrisons had been concen-
trated under Johnston as a last hope.
The military support of the Confederacy
now rested on the army which lyce com-
manded within the intrenchments of
Richmond and Petersburg, and on the
remnant of the western forces with which
Johnston was trying to check Sherman's
advance. Some sharp fighting took
place north of Fayetteville, but Golds-
borough was reached March 21st, and
Johnston retreated to Raleigh. Sher-
man pushed on after him, but events
in Virginia were fast rendering a con-
test in North Carolina unnecessary.

Lee's Situation Desperate.

While the Union army occupied Golds-
borough, Sherman took a steamer on
the coast and hurriedly visited the James
river, where he met the President, Gen-
eral Grant and General Meade, and ar-
ranged with them the plan of operations
for the future. During Sherman's march
through North Carolina, Sheridan had
led a column of cavalry up the Shenan-
doah valley to destroy Lee's communi-
cations in the rear of Richmond. He
passed along the James river, doing-
great damage to the canal and railroads
and joined the main army in front of
Petersburgjustas Sherman arrived there
for his conference with the President
and (rrant.

The situation of Lee was now becom-
ing desperate. He determined to aban-
7

don Petersburg and Richmond, move
by way of Danville and effect a junction
with Johnston, With this purpose he
made one desperate attempt to break
the center of the Union lines at Fort
Steadman, intending under cover of the
attack to withdraw his force. The ef
fort failed, and Lee was repulsed with
heavy loss. Grant resumed his attempts
to push his lines further round to the
south of Petersburg.

Sheridan was put in command of the
extreme left, assailing Lee's right at Five
Forks, April ist, destroying the South-
side railroad, and maintained his posi-
tion.

Three Fierce Assaults.

The Confederate forts Alexander and
Gregg made a stubborn resistance. For
a time the fate of the Confederate Army
of Northern Virginia depended on Fort
Gregg ; for, if it could not be held until
Lee had time to take a new position,
his army was doomed. It repelled three
assaults by the Union troops, but the
fourth carried them over and into the
works, where they found that, out of
the two hundred and fifty comprising
the garrison, only thirty were unhurt.
All the rest were killed or wounded.

To avoid being outflanked Lee was
compelled to lengthen out his line,
already too thin. The next morning,
April 2d, Grant made a general as-
sault and carried his army within the
lines of the Petersburg defences. Lee
retreated, with the intention of bringing
his forces and Johnston's together for a
final stand, while the advance guard of
the Union army entered Richmond.
The Confederate authorities hastened to
escape to Danville, having first set fire
to the shipping, tobacco warehouses,
etc., at Richmond.

98

KNB OF THE GREAT CIVII, WAR.

No time was lost in celebrations of
the victory. Grant pressed on in the
pursuit of Lee with all vigor. He had
so disposed the Federal army that the
escape of the Confederates was almost
impossible. The Confederate forces

9, 1865. The terms of surrender offered
by Grant were very generous ; all pri-

were headed 06 at Appon^attox Court
House, where J <f surrendered, April

GALI.ANT DEFENSE OF FORT GREGG,
vate property belonging to officers and
soldiers was to be retained, the men
were even allowed to keep their horses,
because," Grant said, "they would
need them for the work ou their farms."

END OF THE GREAT CIVIIv WAR.

99

Officers and men were at once set free
on parole, with the understanding that
so long as they did not violate their
parole, nor break the laws, they would
not be disturbed by the Federal gov-
ernment.

Sherman had begun his final opera-
tions against Johnston when the news
arrived of the surrender of Lee. John-
^ston thereupon capitulated April 26 on
much the same terms that had been ac-
corded to the Confederate army in Vir-
ginia after an unsuccessful effort at a
more favorable settlement. All the
other Confederate forces in the field also
surrendered, and the great Civil War
came to an end. The news was received
with an outburst of joy at the North.

End of the Great Struggle.

Mr. lyincoln had begun his second
term on March 4, 1865. At that time
the end of the struggle was plainly near,
and the President in his inaugural ad-
dress had already expressed the hope
that there would be a reconciliation be-
tween the two sections. He said : "With
malice toward none, with charity for
all, with firmness in the right as God
gives us to see the right, let us strive
to finish the work we are in, to bind up
the nation's wounds, to care for him
who shall have borne the battle, and
for his widow and for his orphans; to
do all which may achie\ e and cherish
a just and a lasting peace among our-
selves and with all nations."

The public rejoicings over the cap-
ture of Richmond were clouded by the
death of the wise and noble Ivincoln,
He had gone to Ford's theatre on the
evening of April 14, and was sitting in
his box, when an actor named J Wilkes
Booth entered unperceived and shot

L«ff&

the President through the head, crying :
" The South is avenged. Sic semper
tyrannis.^'' Almost at the same time
one of Booth's accomplices named Payne
attempted to assassinate Secretary Sew-
ard, who was ill at home, and wounded
him seriously, but not fatally. There
had been a plot on the part of some des-
perate characters when the Confederacy
fell, to destroy the leaders of the Fed-
eral government, but their plans werr
accomplished in part only.

Death of the Assassins.

The chief parties implicated perished
mx erably. Booth and Payne escaped
for a time, but '^^ere soon caught. Booth
was killed while resisting arrest. Payne
and three others were hanged, and sev-
eral persons concerned in the plot wen
sentenced to imprisonment.

The President lingered a few hours
and died without giving any sign of
consciousness. His death caused the
deepest sorrow, not only in the North,
but in the South as well, and through-
out all the civilized world. He had
won the abiding love and trust of the
people, and his name will forever be
linked with that of Washington ; for
he was in many ways the second founder
of his country.

Jefferson Davis, while trying to es-
cape, was captured by a detachment of
General J. H. Wilson's cavalry at Ir-
winsville, Georgia, and sent to For-tress
Monroe. Here he was confined a close
prisoner for a long time on the charge
of treason. He was at last liberated on
bail furnished by Horace Greeley and
others, and all proceedings against him
were finally abandoned. In fact, the
glorious triumph of the government of
the United States was in no wise sul-

100

END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.

lied by any dismal executions for trea-
son.

The assassination of Lincoln cliecked
for a time the movement which had
already begun for the restoration of the
seceding States. People who had been
ready in their joy to make peace with
those who had been leaders in the Con-
federacy now were ready to believe that
the spirit which had brought on the
war was unchanged. There was a de-
mand that the laws against treason,
passed by Congress during the heat of
the war, in 1862, should be rigidly en-
forced. These laws prescribed that the
punishment of treason and rebellion
should be death, or fine and imprison-
ment.

Amnesty for Traitors-

But a wiser judgment prevailed.
There was no hanging for treason. The
leaders of the Confederacy were never
jrought to trial. The president of the
Confederate States was suffered to go
free ; and the vice-president, before his
death, became an efficient and respected
member in the Congress of the United
States. For a long time, however, all
persons who had previously taken oath
of allegiance to the Federal government,
and then had broken it by joining the
Confederacy, were debarred from hold-
ing any office under the government of
the United States,

The expenses of the Federal govern-
ment amounted at one time to three
and a half million dollars a day. By
August 31, 1865, the whole debt had
reached its maximum, amounting to
about $2,845,907,626. Some ^800,000,-
000 of revenue had also been spent

mainly on the war. Beside the regular
outlay b" the government enormous
sums were spent by States, cities, coun-
ties and towns in bounties to volunteers,
and by the sanitary commissions and
other societies for the comfort of sick
and wounded soldiers, and for the whole
army in general. The expenses of the
Confederate government can never be'
known. Its debt was estimated at about
;^ 2, 000, 000,000, but this was wiped out
by the failure of the Confederacy, all
its bonds and notes becoming worth-
less.

Vast Destruction of Property.

The amount of property destroyed
by the Union and Confederate armies
can scarcely be estimated, and the
money value (^2,000,000,000) of the
slaves in the South fell a sacrifice to
the war. In the United States funds
were raised by the sale of bonds, the
issue of paper money, of " greenbacks "
and the imposition of heavy taxes, in-
cluding, for some years, a tax on in-
comes. The notes became greatly de-
preciated, so that in July, 1864, the
price of gold in paper currency was
nearly three dollars. Gold and silver
almost disappeared from circulation.

The finances of the Confederacy were
in a ruinous condition long before the
end of the war. It could make no drafts
on the future by bond issues, and it
was a very difficult matter to find pur-
chasers for southern bonds. As ex-
penses increased they had to be met by
paper issues, and each issue was accom-
panied by a corresponding decline in
value, until a dollar in coin was worth
fifty dollars in paper.

CHAPTER VII.

From the Restoration of the Union to Our War with Spain.

(5 I HE most important event follow-
' I ing close upon the restoration of
* peace was the opening of the

Pacific railway from the Missouri river
to the Pacific Ocean in 1869. The
eastern division of this road is knov/n
as the Union Pacific railway, and was
begun at Omaha, Nebraska, in Decem-
ber, 1863, and carried westward. But
little progress was made in the work
until 1865, when it was pushed rapidly
forward.

The western division, known as the
Central Pacific railway, was begun at
San Francisco, about the same time,
and carried eastward across the Sierra
Nevada. The two roads united at Og-
den, near Salt Lake City, in Utah, and
the union was accomplished on the
tenth of May, 1869, on which day the
last rail was laid. The Union Pacific
railway, from Omaha to Ogden, is one
thousand and thirty-two miles in length;
the Central Pacific, from Ogden to San
Francisco, eight hundred and eighty-
two miles; making a total line of nine-
teen hundred and fourteen miles.

Immediately upon the opening of
President Lincoln's second term of
ofl&ce, Mr. Charles Francis Adams, the
American minister at the court of St.
James, was instructed to call the atten-
tion of the British Government to the
depredations committed upon American
commerce by Confederate cruisers, built,
equipped and manned in England, and
to insist upon the responsibility of
Great Britain for the losses thus in-
curred by American ship-owners. Mr.
Adams discharged this duty in a com-

munication addressed to the British
Government on April 7th, 1865. This
led to a correspondence which continued
through the summer of that year. Great
Britain refused to admit the validity of
the American claim, or to submit the
question to the arbitration of any foreign
government. The " Alabama question ' '
remained unsettled for several years,
and occasioned a considerable amount
of ill-feeling between the two countries.
Both governments regarded it as full of
danger, but to Great Britain it was
especially so, as in the event of a wai
between that country and any foreign
power, the United States, following the
example of England, might and doubt-
less would allow cruisers to be sent -out
from their ports which would seriously
cripple, if they did not destroy, the
British commerce.

Court of Arbitration.

After Mr. Adams' return from Eng-
land, his successor, Reverdy Johnson,
was directed by the President to reopen
the matter. He negotiated a treaty
with the Earl of Clarendon on behalJ
of the British Government in 1869, bul
this arrangement was unsatisfactory tc
the Senate, which body refused to rat-
ify it.

Two years later the matter was re-
vived, and in 1871 a joint high com-
mission, composed of a number of dis-
tinguished public men, appointed by
the American and British Governments,
met at Washington, and arranged a set-
tlement known as the treaty of Wash-
ington, which was ratified by both

102

FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN,

Governments. This treaty was ratified
by the Senate on the twenty-fourth of
May, and provided for the settlement
not only of the Alabama claims, but of
ill other questions at issue between the
LTnited States and Great Britain.

The Alabama claims were referred by
the treaty of Washington to a board of
arbitration composed of five commis-
sioners selected from the neutral na-

On the night of Sunday, October 8,
1 87 1, a fire broke out in the city of
Chicago, and raged with tremendous
violence for two days, laying the greater
part of the city in ashes. It was
the most destructive conflagration of
modern times. The total area of the
city burned over was two thousand
one hundred and twenty-four acres,
or very nearly three and one-third

CHICAGO AFTER THE FIRE.

dons. This board met at Geneva, in
Switzerland, on the fifteenth day of
April, 1872, and the American and
English representatives presented to it
their respective cases, which had been
prepared by the most learned counsel
in both countries. On the twenty-
seventh of June the board announced
its decision. The claims of the United
States were admitted, and the damages
awarded our Government were $16,-
250,000. These were paid in due time-

square miles. The number of build-
ings destroyed was seventeen thousand
four hundred and fifty. About two
hundred and fifty persons died from
various causes during the conflagration,
and ninety-eight thousand persons were
rendered homeless by it. The entire
business quarter was destroyed. The
actual loss will never be known. As
far as it can be ascertained, it was about
one hundred and ninety-six millions of
dollars.

FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN

103

On the 29th of May, 1872, Congress
passed an act removing the disabilities
imposed upon th*_ Southern people by
the third section of the fourteenth
amendmeni to the Constitution. From
this general exemptioii were excepted
all person, who had been member;^ of
Congress, officers of the army or navy,
heads 01 departments under the gen-
eral government^ or ministers to for-
eign countries, who nad resigned their
positions and joined the secession move-
ment. By this act at least one hun-
dred and fifty thousand men of capacity
and experience, whose services were
greatly needed by the South, were re-
stored to political life.

Discontent in Cuba.

For many years Cuba had been grow-
ing dissatisfied with the rule of Spain.
In 1868 a revolution broke out in that
island, having for its object the expul-
sion of the Spaniards and the establish-
ment of the independence of Cuba. The
patriot army was able to win numerous
successes over the Spanish troops, and
for several years maintained its position
against every effort to dislodge it.

Very great sympathy was manifested
for the Cuban patriots by the people of
the United States, and repeated efforts
were made to induce the government of
this country to recognize the independ-
ence of Cuba and assist the patriots, or
at least to acknowledge their rights as
belligerents. The government, how-
ever, faithfully observed its obligations
as a neutral power, and forbade the or-
ganization or departure of all expedi-
tions from this country for the assistance
of the Cubans. The Cuban agents were
prevented from shipping arms or mili-
tary supplies to their forces, and several

vessels intended to serve as cruisers
against the Spanish commerce were
seized and detained by the Federal au-
thorities.

In spite of the precautions of the
government, however, several expedi-
tions uid .ucceed in getting to sea and
reaching Cuba. One of these embarked
on the steamer Virginius, in the fall of
1 873. vVhen off the coast of Jamaica
the Spanish war steamer Tornado was
sighted. She at once gave chase, and
though the Virginius was on the high
seas and was flying the American flag,
overhauled her and took possession of
her on the thirty-first of October. The
Tornado then carried her prize into the
port of Santiago de Cuba, which was
reached the next day. Captain Fry,
the commander of the Virginius, and
the crew and passengers of the vessel
were thrown into prison.

Wholesale Murder,

After a mock trial, in which the
simplest forms of decency were disre-
garded, Captain Fry and a number of
the crew and passengers of the Vir-
ginius, about tliirty-five or forty in all,
were shot by order of the military au-
thorities. The other prisoners were
held in a most cruel captivity to await
the pleasure of the Spanish officials at
Havana. The consul of the United
States at Santiago de Cuba made great
exertions to save Fry and those con-
demned to die with him. He was treated
with great indignity by the Spanish
officials, and was not allowed to com-
municate with Havana, from which
point he could consult his government
by telegraph.

When the news of the seizure of the
Virsfinius at sea under the Ameiican

104

FROM THE CIVIIv WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN.

flag reached the United States it aroused
a storm of indignation. Meetings were
held in all the principal cities, and the
press unanimously sustained the popular
demand that the government should re-
quire satisfaction for the outrage upon
its flag. The general sentiment of the
people was in favor of instant war, and
it was openly declared that a better op-
portunity would never arise to drive the
Spaniards out of Cuba and obtain pos-
session of the island.

The government acted with firmness
and prudence. Several vessels of war
were stnt to Santiago de Cuba to prevent
the execution of the surviving prison-
ers taken with the Virginius ; the fleet
in the West Indies was reinforced as
rapidly as possible, and the navy was
at once put on a war footing in order to
be ready for any emergency. The Presi-
dent was urged to convene Congress in
extra session, but he declined to do so,
knowing that that body would be most
l.kely to yield to the popular demand for
war, and he was anxious to settle the dif-
ficulty by peaceful means if possible.

Demands upon Spain.

General Sickles, the American min-
ister at Madrid, was ordered to demand
of the Spanish government the arrest
and punishment of the officials impli-
cated in the massacre of Captain Fry
and his associates, a suitable indemnity
in money for the families of the mur-
dered men, an apology to the United
vStates for the outrage upon their flag,
and the surrender of the Virginius to the
naval authorities of the United States.

These demands were at once submitted
to Senor Castellar, the president of the
Spanish republic. In the critical situa-
tion in which Spain was then placed

by her internal dissensions, Castellar had
no choice but to submit to the American
demands. Orders were at once trans-
mitted to Cuba to surrender the Virgin-
ius and all the prisoners to the Americar
naval forces.

The orders of the Spanish govern-
ment were at first disregarded by the
officials at Havana, who blustered a great
deal, and declared their willingness to go
to war with the United States. They
were brought to their senses, however,
by the warning of Captain General Jo-
vellar, who told them that their refusal
to obey the orders of the Madrid gov-
ernment would certainly involve them
in a war with the United States, in
which Spain would leave them to fight
that power without aid from her. The
Havana officials, therefore, yielded an
ungracious obedience to the orders of
the home government.

Fate of the Virginius.

The survivors of the Virginius expe-
dition, who were in a most pitiable con-
dition, in consequence of the cruelty
with which they had been treated during
their imprisonment, were released and
delivered on board an American man-of-
war in the Hai-bor of Havana.

On the twelfth of December the Vir-
ginius, which had been taken to Havana
by her captors some time before, was
towed ironi that harbor and delivered to
an American vessel sent to receive her.
She was carried to Key West, from
which port she was ordered to New
York. On the voyage she foundered at
sea in a gale off Cape Fear, on the
twenty-sixth of December. At a later
period the Spanish government paid the
indemnity demanded by the United
States.

FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WITH vSPAIN.

105

On the ninth of November, 1872, a fire
occurred in Boston, and burned until
late on the tenth, sweeping over a area
of sixty-five acres in the centre of the
wholesale trade of the city, and destroy-
ing property to the amount of seventy-
rieht million dollars. As this fire was

at length became dissatisfied with their
new location, which they declared was
unable to afford them a support, and
began a series of depredations upon the
settlements of the whites, which soon
drew upon them the vengeance of the
Federal government. Troops were sent

THE IvAVA BEDS — SCENE OF THE MODOC WAR.

confined to the business quarter ol the
city, comparatively few persons were
deprived of their homes.

Early in 1873, a troublesome war be-
gan with the Modoc Indian tribe on the
Pacific coast. These Indians had been
removed by the government from their
old homes in California to reservations
in the northern pa?*" of Oregon. They

against them, but they retreated to
their fastnesses in the lava beds, where
they maintained a successful resistance
for several months. The government
at length reinforced the troops operating
against them, and General Canby, com-
manding the department of the Pacific,
assumed the immediate command of the
troops in the field.

106

FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN.

At the same time, a commission was
appointed by the government to en-
deavor to settle the quarrel with the
Indians peaceably. This commission
held several conferences with Captain
Jack, the head chief of the Modocs,
and the other Indian leaders, but accom-
plished nothing. At length the com-
missioners and General Canby agreed
to meet the Indians in the lava beds, a
short distance in advance of the lines of
the troops. They went unarmed and
without an escort. While the confer-
ence was in progress, the Indians sud-
denly rose upon the commissioners and
killed all but one, who managed to
escape with severe wounds. General
Cranby was shot down at the same time
and died instantly.

Hanged Till They Were Dead.

The Indians at once fled to their strong-
holds amid the rocks. The troops, in-
furiated by the murder of their com-
mander, closed in upon them from all
sides and shut them in the lava beds.
Their position was one which a handful
of men might defend against an army,
and they held it with a desperate deter-
mination. They were dislodged finally
by the shells of the American guns,
and such as were not killed were cap-
tured. Captain Jack and his associates
in the murder of General Canby and the
commissioners were tried by a court-
martial and sentenced to death. They
were hanged in the presence of their
countrymen and of the troops on the
third of October, 1873.

The year 1875 completed the period
of one hundred years from the opening
of the Revolution, and the events of 1775
were celebrated with appropriate com-
memorative ceremonies in the places

where they occurred. The centennial
anniversary of the battles of Lexington
and Concord was celebrated at those
places on the nineteenth of April with
great rejoicings. On the seventeenth of
June the centennial of Bunker Hill was
celebrated at Charlestown. Vast crowds
were present from all parts of the
country.

One of the most gratifying features
of the celebration was the presence and
hearty participation in the ceremonies
of a large number of troops from the
Southern States. Nearly all of these
had served in the Confederate army, and
their presence in the metropolis of New
England was an emphatic proof that the
Union had indeed been restored. The
memory of the common glory won by
the fathers of the republic did much to
heal the wounds and obliterate the scars
of the Civil War.

Centennial Exhibition.

As early as 1872 measures were set on
foot for the proper observance of the one
hundredth anniversary of the independ-
dence of the United States. It was re-
solved to commemorate the close of the
first century of the republic by an Inter-
national Exhibition, to be held at Phil-
adelphia in 1876, in which all the na-
tions of the world were invited to par-
ticipate. Preparations were at once set
on foot for the great celebration.

The European governments with
great cordiality responded to the invi-
tations, extended to them by the gov-
ernment of the United States, and on
the loth of May, 1876, the International
Centennial Exhibition was opened with
the most imposing ceremonies in the
presence of an immense concourse of
citizens from all parts of the Union, and

JfROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN.

107

of the President of the United States
and the Emperor of Brazil. The exhi-
bition remained open from May lOth to
November loth, 1876, and was visited
by more than ten million people from the
various States of the Union, from Can-
ada, South America and Europe. It
was one of the grandest and most nota-
ble events of the century, and. illustra-
ted our country's progress.

The year 1876 was not destined to be
entirely a period of peace. The Sioux
Indians had ceded to the United States

with about 250 soldiers, was surprised
by an overwhelming force of Indians
and he and his entire command were
massacred. Custer's men fought with
wonderful bravery and exacted a fear-
ful price for their lives at the hands of
the savages. The war lasted into the
winter of 1877, when the Sioux with
their chiefs, Sitting Bull and Crazy
Horse, went across the border into
British territory.

Hon. James A. Garfield was inau-
gurated President March 4, 1881. He

CEREMONIES AT THE OPENING OF THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION.

a large tract of country in what was
then Dakota Territory, reserving to
themselves the district known as the
Black Hills. When it was rumored
that gold had been found on their reser-
vation, the whites began to rush into
this region, regardless of the rights of
the Indians. The Sioux were a warlike
tribe, and they retaliates by attacking
the frontier settlements in Montana and
Wyoming.

United States troops were sent against
them, but met at first with a terrible
disaster. In June, 1876, General Custer,

had made plans for making a visit to
New England, to be present at the com-
mencement exercises of his Alma Mater,
Williams College, in Massachusetts,
and was to be accompanied by a distin-
guished party, including several mem-
bers of the Cabinet. On the morning
of the 2d of July the party proceeded
to the Baltimore and Potomac depot,
where they were to take the cars, in
advance of the President, who arrived
soon after in company with Secretarj
Blaine, who came simply to see him
oflf and say good-bye. They left the

108

FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WiTH SPAIN.

President's carriage together, and saun-
tered arm-in-arm through the depot
towards the cars.

In passing through the ladies' waiting-
room, the President was fired at twice
^y a man named Charles J. Guiteau.
Hie first shot inflicted a slight wound
in the President's right arm, and the
second a terrible wound in the right
side of his back, between the hip and

hope and despair, and was kept all the
while in a most painful suspense.

He was then removed to L,ong Branch,
New Jersey, in the hope that sea-air
would benefit him, and for a time there
were renewed hopes of his recovery, but
on September 19th a change for the
worst appeared, and the brave struggle
was brought to an end. The funeral
took place amidst universal demonstra-

ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD.

the kidney. The President fell heavily
to the floor, and the assassin was secured
as he was seeking to make his escape
from the building, and was conveyed to
a police-station, from which he was sub-
sequently taken to prison.

The two months following the wound-
ing of President Garfield dragged wea-
rily away, the patient at times showing
symptoms of marked improvement, and
at others experiencing dangerous re-
lapses. The nation alternated between

tions of sorrow throughout the country.
On the 30th of June, 1882, the assassin
was executed at Washington.

Early in 1 891 active preparations were
commenced for the appropriate celebra-
tion of the four hundredth anniversary
of the discovery of America by Colum-
bus. As the centennial anniversary of
American independence in 1876 had
been commemorated by an international
exposition at Philadelphia, in which
nearly all the civilized nations of the

/

^:

l-*"

.1 ^ I

«*w

■^^-fV

109

110

FROM THE CIVIIv WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN.

earth participated, it was resolved to
celebrate the discovery of the New
World by an exhibition of grander pro-
portions, as the only suitable method of
giving dignity to the great occasion.
The whole country became interested in
the project, and it was advocated with
unanimity by the newspaper press.

The act of Congress, which definitely
selected Chicago as the city in which
the Exposition should be held, and
which fixed the dates of the celebration
to be held in 1892, and the formal open-
ing and closing of the Exposition in
1893, was approved by the President of
the United States, April 25, 1890. The
Exposition buildings were located in
Jackson Park.

Dedication Oeremonies.

The grounds and buildings were so
nearly ready that the dedication cere-
monies were held in October, 1 892. The
celebration in New York extended over
several days, ending on the 12th of Oc-
tober, and consisted of a magnificent
military and naval parade. Vast num-
bers of people flocked to the metropolis
from surrounding towns, and even dis-
tant localities, and participated in the
festivities.

The greatest celebration, however,
was in Chicago, occupying several days,
and attended by multitudes of people.
Vice-President Morton was present, also
the governors of a number of States,
together with distinguished persons
from all parts of the country, including
President Harrison's Cabinet, army and
navy officers, and members of Congress.

On Monday, the ist day of May, 1893,
in the presence of 300,000 people, Gro-
ver Cleveland", President of the United
States, surrounded by the members of,

his Cabinet, by a distinguished repre-
sentation from lands across the seas,
and a mighty throng of American citi-
zens, pressed the electric button which
set in motion the miles of shafting, the
innumerable engines and machines, and
the labyrinth of belting and gearing
which made up the machinery of the
World's Columbian Exposition.

At the sam^ moment a National
salute peeled forth from the gun, the
"Andrew Johnson, ' ' lying off" the Expo-
sition grounds, in Lake Michigan ; 700
flags released from their "tops" at a
concerted signal swung loose, and
streamed out under the sky in scarlet,
yellow and blue.

In Machinery Hall a great roar arose,
and the turrets of the building shook
as the wheels began to turn, and a
greater volume of sound arose from the
throats of a concourse of people who
thus acclaimed the opening of the grand-
est achievement of America pluck,
enterprise and generosity.

President Starts Machinery.

From the centre of the platform pro-
per there radiated a special stand, and
upon this were chairs for President
Cleveland, Vice-President Stevenson,
the Duke of Veragua and his party, and
the higher national and local officers
of the Fair. Immediately in the rear
were the sections assigned to the mem-
bers of the Diplomatic Corps, while to
their right and left the guests of the
occasion were arranged ; behind these
were placed the orchestra.

Prayer was offered by Rev. W. H,
Milburn, D.D., Chaplain of the United
States Senate, after which a poem, writ-
ten by Mr. W. A. Croffutt, was read.
Then followed addresses by the Hon.

FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN.

Ill

George R. Davis, Director-General of
the Exposition, and President Cleve-
land.

As the President was concluding the
final sentence of his address his eyes
wandered to the table that was close at
his left hand. Upon this was the button,
the pressure upon which was to start
the machinery and make the opening
of the Exposition an accomplished fact.
It rested upon a pedestal upholstered in
navy blue and golden yellow plush, and
on the sides of the lower tier, in silver
letters, were the significant dates, 1492
and 1893. As the last words fell from
the President's lips he pressed his finger
upon the button.

Hallelujah Chorus.

tShis was the signal for a demonstra-
nefa difficult of imagination, and in-
finitely more so of description. At one
and the same instant the audience burst
into a thundering shout, the orchestra
pealeth forth the strains of the Hallelu-
jah Chorus, the wheels of the great Ellis
engine in Machinery Hall commenced to
revolve, the electric fountains in the la-
goon threw their torrents towards the
sky, a flood of water gushed from the
McMonnies Fountain and rolled back
again into the basin, the thunder of
artillery came from the vessels in the
lake, the chimes in Manufacturers' Hall
and on the German Building rang out a
merry peal, and overhead the flags at
the tops of the poles in front of the
platform fell apart and revealed two
gilded models of the ships in which
Columbus first sailed to American
shores.

At the same moment also hundreds
of flags of all nations and all colors
were unfurled within sight of the plat-

form. The largest was a great " Old
Glory," which fell into graceful folds
from the top of the centre staff" in front
of the stand. The roof of the Manu-
facturers' Building was gorgeous in red
gonfalons, while the Agricultural Build-
ing was dressed in ensigns of orange
and white.

It was a wonderful scene of transfor-
mation, and amid it all cannon con-
tinued to thunder and the crowd to
cheer. It was fully ten minutes before
the demonstration subsided. Then the
band played " Americci" and the exer-
cises were at an end. The Columbian
Exposition was open to the nations of
the world. It was precisely the hour
of noon when President Cleveland
touched the button and thus declared
the opening an accomplished fact.

Statistics of the Fair.

The official time for closing the Fair
was October 30th. The following are
the official figures for the paid admis-
sions to the Fair : May, 1,050,037; June
2,675,113; July, 2,760,263; August,
3,515,493; September, 4,659,871; Oc-
tober, 6,816,435 f making 21,477,212.
The total admissions on passes were
2,052,188, making a grand total of
23,529,400.

After every debt of the World's Fair
was paid there remained $1,000,000 to
be distributed among the stockholders.
The treasurer made this pleasant an-
nouncement on the closing day. The
Exposition Company paid out ;^30,558,-
849.01, or three times the amount the
managers expected to spend when they
commenced building the Fair. The
gate receipts during the Exposition
period proper were a little over ^^lo,-

ClOOyOOO.

112

FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPyMN.

Up to the last day $3,300,000 had
been, collected from concessionaries.
The returns from those who held con-
cession privileges was one of the big
surprises of the Fair. Nobody was
reckless enough to predict that that
sum would be realized. The Paris Ex-
position received but $80,000 from that
source, while in 1876 the Centennial
Exposition managers received $1,200,-

000.

Grold in Alaska.

Much excitement was caused in 1897
by the discovery of gold in Alaska. It
was found in large quantities in the
Yukon district. On the Klondike it
was found in August of the year pre-
ceding. The Canadian Government is
sued new mining regulations, as it was
anticipated that many persons in pur-
suit of the yellow metal would rush to
this region. Both from the United
States and Canada thousands of men
started for the Klondike.

Many of them were ignorant of the
country they were seeking, its severe
climate in winter, the absence of the
necessaries of life, and the consequence
was that a vast amount of suffering re-
sulted at Dawson City and other places.

In December, 1897, a steamer left the
gold region and arrived at Victoria, B.
C, August 29th, 1898, with thirty-five
miners and two hundred thousand dol-
lars in gold. Nearly one million dol-
lars in value arrived there on the 15th
of July, 1899.

Qeneral Prosperity.

The extreme business depressio^.that
had lasted for several years gave way in
1898 and 1899 to great activity in all
kinds of trade. Manufacturing interests
revived, and some of the industries,
especially iron and steel, received or-
ders larger than ever before, and had
great difficulty in meeting the demands
made upon them. At the same time
our exports were largely increased and
the balance of trade with other coun-
tries was in our favor.

The Spanish-American War did not
seriously affect the prosperity of the
country, which was greater than that
of any previous period of our history.
This had a quieting effect upon the
laboring classes, and there were few
sharp conflicts between capital and
labor, as in nearly all the industries
wages were advanced.

CHAPTER VIII

The Spanish-American War.

NDER the lead-
ership of a band
of brave pa-
triots an insur-
rection broke
out in Cuba
early in 1895.
It was simply a
continuation of
the straggle for independence which
had been going on at intervals for many
years. Cuban revolutionists were bat-
tling to throw off the yoke of Spain.

When our Congress was in session in j plosion was not apparent
the winter of 1897-98 Cuba's struggle

which were referred to the committee
on foreign relations, were indicative of
the temper of Congress.

A profound sensation was creaced by
the destruction of the United States
battleship Maine in the harbor of Ha-
vana. The Maine was lying in harbor,
having been sent to Cuba on a friendly
visit. On the evening of February 15,
1898, a terrific explosion took place on
board the ship, by which 266 sailors
and officers lost their lives and the ves-
sel was wrecked. The cause of the ex-

for freedom occupied its attention more
than any other topic. The Spanish
General Weyler ordered all the inhabi-
tants of Cuba who were suspected of
sympathizing with the insurgents into
the towns, where they were left to ob-
tain the necessaries of life as best they
could. This act, which was pronounced
inhuman by the American people, re-
sulted in the death of tens of thousands
of men, women and children by starva-
tion. Meanwhile, accurate reports of
the appalling situation in Cuba were
brought by several members of Con-
gress who visited the island with a view
to ascertaining the exact facts.

These reports so inflamed the Sen-
■ ate ana House of Representatives that
a number of resolutions were intro-
duced demanding that belligerent rights
should be granted to the Cubans, and
further, that the United States should
intervene with force of arms to end the
war in Cuba, and secure the indepen-
dence of the island. These resolutions,

Destruction of the Maine.

The Government at Washington and
the whole country were horrified at the
destruction of one of our largest cruiseis
and the loss of so many of our brave
sailors. The excitement throughout
the country was intense. The chief
interest in the Maine disaster now cen-
tered upon the cause of the explosion
that so quickly sent her to the bottom
of Havana harbor.

A Naval Board of Inquiry went to
Havana, and proceeded promptly to in-
vestigate the cause of the explosion
that destroyed the battleship. The
finding of the Court of Inquiry was
reached after twenty-three days of con-
tinuous labor, and was submitted to
Congress by President McKinley with
a message in which he said :

"The conclusions of the Court are:
That the loss of the Maine was not in
any respect due to fault or negligence
on the part of qny of the officers or
memb'^^s of her crew.

113

114

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

" That the ship was destroyed by the
explosion of a submarine mine, which
caused the partial explosion of two or
more of her forward magazines ; and

"That no evidence has been obtain-
able fixing the responsibility for the de-
struction of the Maine upon any person
or persons.

*' I have directed that the finding of
the Court of Inquiry and the views of
this Government thereon be communi-
cated to the Government of her Majesty,
the Queen Regent, and I do not permit
myself to doubt that the sense of jus-
tice of the Spanish nation will dictate
a course of action suggested by honor
and the friendly relations of the two
governments.

" It will be the duty of the Executive
to advise the Congress of the result, and
in the meantime deliberate considera-
tion is invoked."

Message from the President.

Following the destruction of the bat-
tleship Maine, which profoundly stirred
the whole country with indignation.
President McKinley sent a message to
Congress containing the following re-
quest : "I ask the Congress to author-
ize and empower the President to take
measures to secure a full and final ter-
mination of hostilities between the Gov-
ernment of Spain and the people of
Cuba, and to secure in the island the
establishment of a stable government
capable of maintaining order and ob-
serving its international obligations,
ensuring peace and tranquillity and the
security of its citizens as well as our
own, and to use the military and naval
forces of the United States as may be
necessary for these purposes."

Congress debated a week over the

recommendations contained in the Pre-
sident's message, and on April i8th
both Houses united in passing a series
of resolutions calling for the interven-
tion of the United States to compel
Spain to withdraw her forces from Cuba,
and thus permit the authorities at Wash-
ington to provide the Island with a free
and independent government. The de-
mand contained in the resolutions was
sent to the Spanish Minister at Wash-
ington on April 20th, who at once called
for his passports and left for Canada.

On the same date the ultimatum of
our Government was sent to United
States Minister Woodford, at Madrid,
who was curtly handed his passports
before he had an opportunity of formally
presenting the document. These trans-
actions involved a virtual declaration of
war, although Congress did not for-
mally declare that war actually existed
until April 25th, dating the time back
to the 2 1 St.

The War Begins.

The North Atlantic Squadron was
immediately ordered to blockade the
Cuban ports, and on April 2 2d pro-
ceeded to carry out the order. The
next day President McKinley promul-
gated a resolution calling for 125,000
volunteers. On the same date Morro
Castle, commanding the harbor of Ha-
vana, fired on the United States flag-
ship New York, but without doing
damage. Subsequent events comprised
the capture of a number of Spanish
vessels by Admiral Sampson's squadron.

Stirring news from our Asiatic fleet
was soon received. On May ist Admiral
Dewey destroyed the Spanish squadron
in the harbor of Manila, Philippine Is-
landSj capturii;^ the vessels and inflict-

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

115

ing- a heavy loss on the enemy in killed
and wounded.

The American vessels were the Olym-
pia, 5,800 tons, a swift commerce de-
stroyer, carrying four terrible eight-inch
guns and ten deadly five-inch quick-
firers ; the Baltimore scarcely less form-
idable than the Olympia, with four
eight-inch

fleet, steaming slowly up from Cavite,
came several shots at the American fleet.
The two duelists were now face to face.
The Spanish ships were of older pat-
terns, rather than smaller, and were far
more numerous. There were the Reina
Cristina, of 3,090 tons, with six six-inch
and two three- inch guns ; the Castilla,

guns and six
six-inch rapid-
firers; the Bos-
ton, smaller
than the Olym-
pia and Balti-
more, but still
a real and pow-
erful floating
fort, with her
two eight-inch
guns and her
six six-inch
rapid-firers;
the Raleigh,
similar to the
Boston, with
one six-inch
and ten five-
inch guns ; the
Concord, with
six six-inch
guns ; the gun-
boat Petrel,
with five six-
inch guns. To
the rear of

these the transport ships, with coal,
ammunition and accommodations for
wounded.

On came the American fleet until it
was within about three miles of Manila,
and then a Spanish gun on the battery
at the end of the Mole spoke ; but the
shot fell short. Then from the Spanish

MANILA HARBOR -SCENE OF THE GREAT BATTLE

with four six-inch guns ; the smaller
cruisers Velasco, Don Juan de Austria
and Don Antonio de Ulloa, besides ten
gunboats. Then there were the batteries
on shore all along the low peninsula.

To get the full effect of all of these
guns the Spaniards formed so that the
Americans would have to face not only

116

niE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

all the guns afloat, but also all the guns
on shore at Cavite, while from the rear
the strong batteries of Manila could, per-
haps, send aiding shots. When the
American manoeuverings brought their
ships within range, at about 6.45, the
real duel began. The Spanish fleet stood
ready, flanked by the Cavite batteries
on the south.

The American fleet began to steam
languidly to and fro. Suddenly there
were one or two sharp cracks, and then
a succession of deafening roars, and then
one long, reverberating roar, that
boomed and bellowed from shore to
shore. A huge cloud of smoke lay close
upon the waters, and around it was a
penumbra of thick haze.

Floating Batteries.

Through this the American ships
could be seen moving, now slowly, now
more rapidly, flames shooting from their
sides, and answering flames leaping from
the Spanish ships and land batteries,
while now and then from the direction
of Manila came hollow rumbles as the
big guns there were discharged, more
from eagerness to take part than from
the hope of lending effective aid.

It was impossible to see from shore
the effect of many of the shots, but from
the fact that the American ships were
alternately advancing and retreating in
the course of their manoeuverings, the
Spaniards on shore got the impression
that the Yankees were being beaten.
When the ships were again seen, the
Reina Cristina was wrapped in flames.
On her decks sailors, Spaniards and
natives, were rushing frantically about.
The Isla de Cuba came near, and part
of the Reina Cristina's crew — perhaps
all that were still alive — ^nd the Spanish

Admiral went aboard her, but hardly
were they aboard when she, too, burst
into flanves.

Confusion now reigned throughout
the Spanish fleet. On every vessel the
decks were slippery with blood and the
air filled with the shrieks and groans of
the Spaniards. The native sailors rushed
about in a frenzy of rage rather than
terror. The Americans were seemingly
calm and cool, and still in good order
they pressed their advantage. In fact,
they pushed on too closely, for now the
fire from the Cavite batteries became
effective.

Blown Skyward.

At this juncture the Don Juan de
Austria became a centre of interest.
She had been in the very front of battle
and received, perhaps, more of the Amer-
ican shots than any other ship. Ad-
miral Montojo, on the burning Isla de
Cuba, threw up his arms with a gesture
of despair as a heavy roar came from
the Don Juan de Austria and part of
her deck flew up in the air, taking with
it scores of dead, dying and mangled.
A shot had penetrated one of her maga-
zines. She was ruined and sinking, but
her crew refused to leave her. Weeping,
cursing, praying and firing madly and
blindly they went down with her, and
as the Don Juan de Austria went down
the Castilla burst into flames.

The remainder of the Spanish fleet
now turned and fled down the long,
narrow inlet behind Cavite. Several ot
the gun-boats were run ashore, others
fled up a small creek and were groiinded
there. The guns of Cavite kept on
thundering, and the Americans, press-
ing their advantage no further, drew off.
As they steamed away toward their

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

117

waiting transports the Spaniards went
wild with joy.

They thought that in spite of out-
ward appearances the American fleet was
crippled, and that as it would be una-
ble tc escape from the harbor it would
fall into their hands. This was tele-
graphed up to Manila, and soon to
Madrid, where it filled the Ministry
with momentary delight; but before
the Ministers at Madrid had read the
false news, the American fleet, with
decks again cleared and with fresh sup-
plies of ammunition was steaming back
toward Cavite.

Dewey Made Adrairal.

This second engagement was short.
The last Spanish ship was soon grounded
or sunk. The American guns were now
trained on Cavite, and one ship after
another steamed along pouring in a
deadly fire. At 11.30 the batteries at
Cavite ceased to answer, and the Ameri-
can fleet with ringing cheers from its ex-
hausted, but triumphant crews steamed
jubilantly back to the transport ships.
And to the long list of splendid naval
victories beginning with the Revolu-
tion was added the glorious victory of
Manila.

In honor of his distinguished service
Commodore Dewey was raised to the
rank of Admiral, and Congress passed
a series of resolutions thanking him
and his men for services rendered their
country, and voted a medal to every
man of the fleet. Dewey's victory was
gained without the loss of a single life.

On May nth Ensign Bagley, of the
torpedo boat Winslow, and five men
were killed, and five others were wounded
in Cardenas harbor, on the northern
coast of Cuba, in an engagement with

Spanish gunboats. The Americans dis-
played great bravery in the face of dan-
ger, the action of the United States
gunboat Hudson being especially nota-
ble in going to the rescue of the Win-
slow, and towing her out of range of
the enemy's fire. Ensign Bagley was
the first to lose his life in the war.

It was known that Spain had sent a
formidable fleet under Admiral Cervera
to operate in the waters around Cuba,
but for several weeks the officers of our
North Atlantic Squadron were unable
to locate the Spanish ships, or tell their
exact destination. On May 19th the
long suspense occasioned by the diffi-
culty of ascertaining what Admiral
Cervera intended to do with his fleet
was over, and it was definitely known
that his vessels were entraped in the
harbor of Santiago.

Hurrying Troops Forward.

The Government resolved to send
troops at once to that point to aid the
fleet in capturing the town. While it
was known that the Spanish vessels
were inside the harbor of Santiago it
was considered impossible for our bat-
tleships to enter the harbor on account
of mines which had been planted, and
the formidable attack sure to be made
by batteries on shore.

The entrance to the harbor of San-
tiago is very na,rrow, and vessels are
compelled at one point to go through a
channel not much over three hundred
feet wide. Here occurred on the morn-
ing of June 3d one of the most gallant
acts recorded in the annals of naval
warfare. Lieutenant Hobson, naval
constructor, on the flagship of Admiral
Sampson, conceived the plan of block-
ing this narrow entrance by sinking the

118

THE^ SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

collier Merrimac, thus "bottling up"
Cervera and his fleet.

When it became known that he was
about to enter upon this daring under-
taking and would need a few brave
spirits to aid him, every man apparently
of the whole fleet was anxious to form
one of the party. Only six, however,
were chosen and these were men as
brave and adventurous as Hobson him-
self

The collier was prepared for sinking,
and early in the morning about daylight
she started on her mission, accompanied
by a launch manned by Ensign Powell
and six other men, who were to rescue
the crew of the Merrimac when she
went down. Thousands of eyes from
our ships were strained to watch the
progress of the undertaking. Suddenly
the Spanish batteries on shore opened
fire on the daring craft.

Fate of the Gallant Crew

Lying closer in than the warships,
Powell had seen the firing when the
Merrimac and her crew, then well in-
side Morro Castle, were probably first
discovered by the Spaniards. He also
heard an explosion, which may have
been caused by Hobson' s torpedoes.
The Ensign was not sure. He waited
vainly, hoping to rescue the heroes of
the Merrimac, until he was shelled out
by the forts.

The work, however, was done. The
big vessel had been swung across the
narrow entrance to the harbor, the tor-
pedoes had been fired, the explosion had
come, the great collier was sinking at
j'-'st the right point ; and her gallant
crew, having jumped into the water to
save their lives, were taken on board
the flagship of the ,Spanish Admiral,

who praised their bravery, and sent an
officer under flag of truce to assure Ad-
miral Sampson that the heroic band
was safe and would be well cared for.
Spanish chivalry was forced to admira-
tion.

By the end of June the army that oui
Government had ordered to Cuba had
arrived, General Shafter being in com-
mand. The number of troops was about
16,000, including officers, and sailed
from Tampa, Florida, June 13th, arriv-
ing at Santiago on the 20th.

Rough Riders in Battle.

It was not long after General Shafter's
army landed before the United States
troops were engaged in active service
and had a sharp conflict with the enemy.
The initial fight of Colonel Wood's
famous regiment, known as the Rough
Riders, and the troopers of the First
and Tenth regular cavalry was at La
Quasi na. That it did not end in the
complete slaughter of the Americans
was not due to any miscalculation in
the plan of the Spaniards, for all the
advantages of position were in their
favor. For an hour and a half our troops
held their ground under a perfect storm
of bullets from the front and sides, and
then Colonel Wood, at the right, and
Lieutenant-Colonel Roosevelt at the left,
led a charge which turned the tide of
battle and sent the enemy flying over
the hills toward Santiago.

The American officers showed the ut-
most energy in preparing for the attack
on Santiago; by July ist everything was
in readiness, and General Shafter or-
dered a forward movement with a view
of investing and capturing the town.
The advance was made in two divisions,
the left storming the works at San Juan.

tHB SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

llO

Our torces m this assault were composed
of the Rough Riders and the First,
Third, Sixth, Ninth and Tenth dis-
mounted cavalry. Catching the enthu-
siasm and boldness of the Rough Riders,
these men rushed against the San Juan
defences with a fury that was irresistible.
Their fierce assault was met by the
Spaniards with a stubbornness born of
desperation. Hour after hour the troops
on both sides fought fiercely. In the
early morning the Rough Riders met
with a similar, though less costly, expe-
rience to the one they had at La Quasina
just a week before. They found them-
selves a target for a terrific Spanish fire,
to resist which for a time was the work
of madmen. But the Rough Riders
did not flinch. Fighting like demons,
they held their ground tenaciously, now
pressing forward a few feet, then falling
back, under the enemy's fire, to the po-
sition they held a few moments before.

Cowboys and "Dandies."

The Spaniards were no match for the
Roosevelt fighters, however, and, as had
been the case at La Quasina, the West-
ern cowboys and Eastern "dandies"
hammered the enemy from their path.
Straight ahead they advanced, until by
noon they were well along toward San
Juan, the capture of which was their
immediate object.

There was terrible fighting about the
heights during the next two horrs.
While the Rough Riders were playing
such havoc in the enemy's lines, the
First, Third, Sixth, Ninth and Tenth
cavalry gallantly pressed forward to
right and left. Before the afternoon
was far gone these organizations made
one grand rush all along the line, cap-
turing the San Juan fortifications, and

sending the enemy in mad haste off"
toward Santiago. It was but three
o'clock when these troops were able to
send word to General Shafter that they
had taken possession of the position he
had given them a day to capture.

Carried by Storm.

On the right General Lawton's divi-
sion, supported by Van Home's brigade,
under command temporarily of Colonel
Ludlow, of the Engineers, drove the
enemy from in front of Caney, forcing
them back into the village. There the
Spaniards for a time were able to hold
their own, but early in the afternoon
the American troops stormed the vil-
lage defences, driving the enemy out
and taking possession of the place.
Gaining the direct road into Santiago,
they established their lines within three-
quarters of a mile of the city at sunset.

General Shafter' s advance against the
city of Santiago was resumed soon after
daybreak on the morning of July 2d.
The American troops renewed the at-
tack on the Spanish defences with im-
petuous enthusiasm. They were not
daunted by the heavy losses sustained
in the first day's fighting. Inspired by
the great advantages they had gained
on the preceding day, the American
troops were eager to make the final
assault on the city itself Their ad-
vance had been an uninterrupted series
of successes, they having forced the
Spaniards to retreat from each new posi-
tion as fast as it had been taken. Ad-
miral Sampson, with his entire fleet,
joined in the attack.

The battles before the intrenchments
around Santiago resulted in advantage
to General Shafter' s army. Gradually
he approached the citv, holding <?verv

120

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

foot of ground gained. In the fighting
of July 2d, the Spanish were forced
back into the town, their commanding
general was wounded, and the day
closed with the certainty that soon our
flag would float over Santiago.

The fleet of Admiral Cervera had long
been shut up in the harbor, and during
the two days' fighting gave effective aid

INTERNATIONAL SIGNAL CODE.

to the Spanish infantry by throwing
shells into the ranks of the Americans.
On the morning of July 3d, another
great naval victory was added to the
successes of the American arms, a vic-
tory no less complete and memorable
than that achieved by Dewey at Manila.
Admiral Cervera's fleet, consisting of
the armored cruisers Cristobal Colon,
Almirante Oquendo, Infanta Maria Te-

resa, and Vizcaya, and two torpedo boat
destroyers, the Furor and the Pluton,
which had been held in the harbor of
Santiago de Cuba for six weeks by the
combined squadrons of Rear-Admirals
Sampson and Schley, was sent to the
bottom of the Caribbean Sea off the
southern coast of Cuba.

Tlie Spanish admiral was made a
prisoner of war on the auxiliary gun-
boat Gloucester, and 1,000 to 1,500
other Spanish officers and sailors, all
who escaped the frightful carnage
caused by the shells from the American
warships, were also made prisoners oC
war by the United States navy. The
American victory was complete, and
the American vessels were practically
untouched, and only one man was
killed, though the ships were subjected
to the heavy fire of the Spaniards all
the time the battle lasted.

The Adnairal's Bravery.

Admiral Cervera made as gallant a
dash for liberty and for the preservation
of the ships as has ever occurred in the
history of naval warfare. In the face
of overwhelming odds, with nothing
before him but inevitable destruction
or surrender if he remained any longer
in the trap in which the American fleet
held him, he made a bold dash from
the harbor at the time the Americans
least expected him to do so, and, fight-
ing every inch of his way, even when
his ship was ablaze and sinking, he
tried to escape the doom which was
written on the muzzle of every Ameri-
can gun trained upon his vessels.

One after another of the Spanish
ships became the victims of the awful
rain of shells which the American bat-
tleships, cruisers and gun-boats poured

THE SPANISH- AMERICAN WAR.

121

upon thera, and two hours after the first
of the fleet had started out of Santiago
harbor three cruisers and two torpedo-
boat destroyers were lying on the shore
ten to fifteen miles west of Morro Cas-
tle, pounding to pieces, smoke and
flame pouring from every part of them
and covering the entire coast line with
a mist which could be seen for miles.

Heavy explosions of ammunition oc-
curred every few minutes, sending curls
of dense white smoke a hundred feet in
the air, and causing a shower of broken
iron and steel to fall in the water on
every side. The bluffs on the coast
line echoed with the roar of every ex-
plosion, and the Spanish vessels sank
deeper and deeper into the sand, or else
the rocks ground their hulls to pieces
as they rolled or pitched forward or
sideways with every wave that washed
upon them from the open sea.

Total Destruction.

Admiral Cervera escaped to the shore
in a boat sent by the Gloucester to the
assistance of the Infanta Maria Teresa,
and as soon as he touched the beach he
surrendered himself and his command
to Lieutenant Morton, and asked to be
taken on board the Gloucester, which
was the only American vessel near him
at the time, with several of his officers,
including the captain of the flagship.
The Spanish admiral, who was wounded
in the arm, was taken to the Gloucester,
and was received at her gangway by her
commander, Lieutenant Richard Wain-
wright, who grasped the hand of the
gray-bearded admiral and said to him:

"T congratulate you, sir, upon hav-
ing made as gallant a fight as was ever
witnessed on the sea."

The only casualties in the American

fleet were one man killed and two
wounded on the Brooklyn. A large
number of the Spanish wounded were
removed to the American ships.

General Toral, commander of the
Spanish forces at Santiago, was sum-
moned to surrender, and after much
parleying yielded to General Shafter's
demands on July 14th. The formal
surrender took place on the 17th, and
the American flag was hoisted over the
city. By this victory 25,000 Spanish
troops and officers in the province of
Santiago became prisoners of war, and
through the generosity of our govern-
ment were afterwards sent back to
Spain.

It was understood that our Govern-
ment would begin military operations
for the purpose of capturing the. island
of Porto Rico immediately after the fall
of Santiago, and on July 21st an expe-
dition under General Miles, Comman-
der-in-chief of the American army, ac-
companied by transports and a naval
convoy, sailed from Siboney on the
southern coast of Cuba.

Our Army in Porto Rico.

General Miles landed his forces on
July 25th at Guanica, Porto Rico. He
encountered but little opposition, al-
though there were several sharp skir-
mishes with the Spanish troops who
were occupying various points as garri-
sons. On July 27th Ponce surrendered
to General Miles, and on the 28th the
capitulation was formally effected.

Our troops advanced northward across
the island and soon occupied the im-
portant town of San Juan. Thus the
island was peacefully subdued, and with
but little bloodshed. A military gov-
ernment was after\yards established,

122

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

wliirh was intenaed to pave the way for
a civil government that should promote
the peace and welfare of the inhabitants.

The Department of State at Washing-
ton, on the afternoon of August 2d, is-
sued a statement announcing officially
Ihe President's terms of peace, which
were handed to the French Ambassador
Cambon, acting representative of the
Spanish government at Washington.
They were that Spanish sovereignty
must be forever relinquished in the
Western Indies ; that the United States
should have a coaling station in the
Ladrones, and that this country would
occupy Manila's bay and harbor, as well
as the city, pending the determination
of the control, disposition and govern-
ment of the Philippines.

The announcement on August 7th,
from Madrid, that the Spanish Ministry
had formally decided to accept the pro-
position of the United States for a peace
convention relieved the anxiety that was
felt for a definite decision.

Attack on Manila.

Messages were immediately sent to all
army and navy commanders announcing
that the war was ended and ordering
them to cease hostilities. Before the
message reached Manila Admiral Dewey
and General Merritt resolved to capture
the city. The warships bombarded the
forts on August 13th, and the land forces
at the same time made an attack. After
a spirited resistance by the Spaniards
they surrendered, knowing it was use-
less to longer resist.

The fortifications and shore defences
and part of the city itself were destroyed
by American shot and shell during a
terrific bombardment of two hours by
the eight ships of Admiral Dewey's

fleet. The Americans killed lost their
lives in storming the Spanish trenches,
whei they swept everything before them
like a whirlwind.

At 9.30 o'clock the signal to open fire
fluttered from th.^ signal lines of the
Olympia. The flags were scarcely set
when there was a roar from the big
guns of the flagship herself Instantly
all the other vessels opened and a shower
of steel missiles sped toward the doomed
city. At the same time along the line
of the American intrenchments the field
guns opened on the Spanish position,
and the American infantry were massed
in the intrenchments ready for the final
assault.

Enemy Swept Like Ohaflf.

With a cheer the Americans sprang
from their trenches and dashed for the
Spanish earthworks. The First Colo-
rado Volunteers were in the van. A
deadly fire was poured in from the
heights occupied by the Spaniards, and
it was this that caused the American
losses. But the men never hesitated.
They swept the enemy from the outer
line of intrenchments to the second line
of defence. This was at once attacked,
and from there the Spaniards were
driven into the walled city. Then the
Spanish commander saw that further
resistance was useless, and he sent up a
white flag. The bombardment was at
once stopped, and soon afterward the
American forces entered the city. Gen-
eral Merritt assumed command and tem-
porarily restored the civil laws. *

On August 24th it was annoimced that
the following American Peace Commis-
sioners to settle the future of the Philip-
pine Islands had been selected by Pres-
ident McKinley : William R. Day, of

THE SPANISH-AMKRICAlSr WAR.

123

Canton, Ohio, Secretary of State; Cush-
man K. Davis, United States Senator
from Minnesota, Chairman of the For-
eign Relations Committee ; William P.
Frye, United States Senator from Maine,
member of the Foreign Relations Com-
mittee ; Whitelaw Reid, of New York,
for several years American Ambassador
to the French Republic, and
George Gray, United States Sen-
ator from Delaware. The sessions
of the Peace Commission were to be
held in Paris, commencing not later
than October ist, and continuing until
an agreement was reached.

The Commissioners met in Paris at
the appointed time, and at once began
their labors. Reports from time to
time indicated that serious disagree-
ments had developed, and it was even
rumored that it would be impossible to
reach an agreement that would satisfy
both parties. The result, however,
proved the contrary, and on the 28th of
November, 1898,
they reached an
agreem ent respec t-
ing the terms for

establishing peace between the two na-
tions.

The Spanish Commissioners were
compelled to yield to the force of cir-
cumstances, to realize the hopelessness
of further opposition and to accept the
mevitable. In other words, the title of
the United States to the possession of
a vast colonial territory was confirmed
and ratified at the meeting of the Joint
Commission in Paris on the above date.

This territory includes Porto Rico,
the Island of Guam, and the Philippine
archipelago, considered in its broadest
geographical sense — that is, comprising
the Sulu Islands. At the same time

the Spanish sovereignty over Cuba was
also relinquished.

The treaty of peace was signed at 8.45
on the evening of December 10, 1898.
The treaty consisted of seventeen arti-
cles, it having been found advisable to
subdivide some of the articles in the draft
agreed upon at the last meeting. The

EUGENIO MONTERO RIOS.

B. DE ABARAZUZA.

J. DE GARNICA.

W. R. DE VILLI-URRUTIA.

RAFAEL CERERO.

signatures of the American Commis-
sioners and the names of the Commis-
sioners acting for Spain were appended.
The treaty of peace was ratified in the
executive session of the United States
Senate, February 6th, by a vote of 57 to
27, the supporters of the treaty muster-
ing but a single vote more than the
necessary two thirds. There was no

124

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

doubt whatever that the Spanish Cortes
would ratify the treaty, and the war
with Spain was therefore concluded.

The long agitation in Congress and
throughout the country concerning the
peace treaty was over, and the way was
prepared for Congress to adopt such
measures as it might see fit for the future
government of the Philippine Islands.
The debate in the Senate had been very
able, and for some time the result was
in doubt. Efforts were mide to pass a
resolution declaring that it was not the
policy of the United States to acquire
possession of the Islands and make them
a part of the territory of the United
States.

The insurgent army of Aguinaldo,
which had resolutely maintained its
position near Manila after the town was
surrendered by the Spaniards to the
American soldiers and sailors, made a
fierce attack on the American lines on
the evening of February 4, 1899.

Insurgents Driven Back.

Defeated in a desperate effort to break
through the American lines and enter
the city of Manila, the insurgent forces,
after fourteen hours of continuous fight-
ing, were driven from the villages of
Santa Anna, Paco and Santa Mesa.
They were compelled to retreat to a
position quite a distance further out in
the suburbs than the one they held be-
fore attacking the city.

The losses of the insurgents were
neavy, the American troops having
gone into the engagement v/ith great
enthusiasm and determination. They
made the streets of the city ring with
their cheers when they were notified of
the attack and were ordered to advance.
Several of the yessels in Admiral Dew-

ey's squadron participated in the fight,
firing on the natives in Malate and
Caloocan, and driving them inland from
both of these places and inflicting heavy
losses.

Aguinaldo' s forces were completely
routed and driven from six to ten miles
beyond the positions they occupied
when the battle began. On February
loth a force of 6,oqo insurgents that had
gathered at Caloocan was attacked by
the Americans and defeated with heavy
loss. On February i ith Iloilo was cap-
tured by General Miller and the force
under his command, aided by the war-
ships Petrel and Baltimore. No casu-
alties resulted to our troops.

Peace Treaty Signed.

During February Negros and Cebu,
two important islands of the Philippine
group, announced that they were ready
to submit to the authority of the United
States.

On Friday, March 17th, the Queen
Regent of Spain signed the treaty of
peace, which was forwarded to the
French Ambassador at Washington, M.
Jules Cambon, for exchange with the
one signed by President McKinley.

Malolos, the insurgent capital, was
captured on the morning of March 31st
by the American troops, after a hot
fight. The most brilliant exploit and
the winning of the greatest American
victory in the battles around Manila
occurred on the 27th. The taking of
the bridge over the Rio Grande at Cal-
umpit was a deed of astonishing daring.
It was the most strongly defended posi-
tion held by the insurgents. Located
on the north shore of the Rio Grande,
opposite Calumpit, it is the most valu-
able strategic point in lyuzon. The fact

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

125

that it was guarded by the most trust-
worth \- and best disciplined regiments
of General Aguinaldo made the feat
more noteworthy. Army officers said
the daring displayed by the American
"Toops was almost unparalleled in the
annals of modern warfare.

It was a notable day for the Twentieth
Regiment of Kansas Volunteers, com-
manded by Colonel Funston. One hun-
dred and twenty men belonging to that
regiment crossed the river in the face
of a deadly fire from 3,000 insurgent
Mausers. This torrent of bullets was
augmented by a fusillade of a Maxim
gun, of which the insurgents had ob-
tained possession. It was in this battle
that Colonel Funston made himself
famous by dashing forward with only
nine men and charging the trenches
which were manned by hundreds of in-
surgents. They were thrown into apanic
by this daring feat and put to rout.

Desperate Resistance.

General Lawton's forces had an all-
day battle with the insurgents at I^as
Pinas on June 13th. He called out his
whole force of 3,000, and at 5 o'clock
was only able to push the insurgents
back 500 yards to the Zapote River,
where they were intrenched. The in-
surgents resisted desperately and aggres-
sively. They attempted to turn the left
flank of the American troops, but failed.
By this desperate battle the insurgents
lost a district which they superstitiously
believed to be invulnerable against any
attack of their enemies, it having been
the scene of many former victories over
the Spaniards.

The greatest public demonstration
in honor of any individual in the his-
tory of our country took place in New

York upon the return of Admiral Dewey
from his great victory in the harbor of
Manila. The Admiral arrived on the
26th of September, 1 899, and was warmly
greeted by city and state officials. As
his flagship, the Olympia, came into
the harbor, she was received with noisy
demonstrations, and a multitude of peo-
ple, on land and water, testified in every
possible way, their admiration for Ad-
miral Dewey.

Grand Naval Spectacle.

On the 29th, there was a naval pa-
rade that was participated in by the
North Atlantic squadron, and a vast
number of vessels all gaily decked. It
was the most imposing naval spectacle
ever witnessed on this continent. Hun-
dreds of thousands of interested specta-
tors lined the shores, from the Battery
to Grant's tomb on the Hudson, and
cheered our battleships and other naval
vessels.

On the 30th there was a land parade in
which 30,000 soldiers and civilians par-
ticipated. Admiral Dewey was escorted
first to the City Hall where he was pre-
sented by the Municipal Government
with a loving cup in the presence of a
vast throng of people. Thence he was
escorted to Riverside Drive, and from
there made his way through a vast con-
course of applauding people to the arch
erected in his honor at Twenty-fourth
Street and Fifth Avenue, where he re-
viewed the parade. Many state gover-
nors, their escorts and a large number
of city and state officials were in the
parade, and all attempts to describe the
enthusiasm of the populace would fail.

It was a memorable day in the his-
tory of the United States, as it showed
the patriotic feeling of the people and

126

THK SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.

their admiration for the famous hero of
the Spanish war.

From New York the Admiral made
his way to Washington, where he again
met with a most cordial reception, and
on the 3d of October was presented with
a sword that had been voted in his
honor by Congress. An immense con-
course of people surrounded the Capitol,
on the steps of which the Admiral took
his stand and was welcomed in an elo-
quent speech by Hon. John D. Long,
Secretary of the Navy.

A Sword for the Admiral.

President McKinley then presented
the Admiral with the diamond sword
He made a brief and graceful reply,
thanking Congress and the American
people for the distinguished considera-
tion that had been shown him. Other
receptions to the Admiral followed, all
of which showed the appreciation of
the public and gave evidence of the
very high esteem in which he was held
for his bravery, his adherence to duty
and his gallant exploit at Manila.

From Washington the Admiral went
to his native town of Montpelier, Ver-
mont, receiving on the way a continu-
ous ovation. The celebration lasted
two days and drew people from all parts
of the Green Mountain State. On Oc-
tober 13th Dewey laid the corner-stone
of a new building to be named Dewey
Hall in connection with the military
school which he attended in early life.
On the same day he arrived in Boston,
where the town was gayly decorated
and great preparations were made for
his reception. The demonstration here
was no less cordial and unanimous than
elsewhere.

The^ following day 25,000 school chil-

dren welcomed the Admiral on the Com-
mon with the waving of flags and the
singing of patriotic songs. The enthu-
siasm which greeted him upon his ar-
rival at the City Hall equaled that which
he received on the Common. His car-
riage drew up at the entrance to the
City Hall, and the Admiral at once as-
cended the stand erected in front of the
building, which was decorated in bunt-
ing and evergreens.

Boston's Hearty Welcome.

By the stand at City Hall 280 trained
singers from the Handel and Haydn So-
ciety were seated. As the Admiral and
his party appeared upon the stand the
society sang, "See the Conquering
Hero Comes," to which the Admiral
listened, chapeau in hand, and at the
close of which he stepped forward and
acknowledged the reception with re-
peated bows. The action called forth a
great wave of cheers, which Mayor
Quincy, arising, checked with uplifted
hand. The Mayor then delivered the
address of presentation to the distin-
guished guest, who remained seated, at
the Mayor's suggestion. In his address
Mayor Quincy characterized the battle
of Manila Bay as " the greatest since
Trafalgar."

At the State House the Admiral and
Governor Wolcott and staff left the line
and took up a position on the State
House steps, where they remained while
the parade passed in review on its way
to the Common, where the colors carried
by those regiments which were in the
Spanish War, were formally surren-
dered to the State with impressive cerc'
monies. The exercises were viewed by
Admiral Dewey, with Governor Wolcott
and staff.

PART II.

European and Other Countries.

CHAPTER IX.

Great Events in English History.

ingr

N the beginning
of the cen-
tury Europe
was in a state
of turmoil
and great up-
heaval. The
star of Napo-
leon was in
the ascendant
and tremen-
dous forces
were gather-
by which the
destiny of nations
was to be decided.

The return of Na-
poleon from Egypt
to France enabled
England to finish
the work of expell-
ing the French from
the East. On the 21st of March, 1801,
Sir Ralph Abercrombie inflicted a crush-
ing defeat upon the French before Alex-
andria, and compelled them to evacuate
Egypt. By this success England se-
cured her possessions in India, and
prevented Turkey from becoming a
dependency of France. Malta had al-
ready been wrested from the French,

and England was now supreme in the
Mediterranean. Her danger was very
great, however. The treaty of Eune-
ville had left her alone in the struggle
with France, and a league of the north-
ern powers, with Russia at its head,
was determined to compel her to aban-
don her claim to the right to seize neu^
tral vessels carrying contraband of war.

Great Naval Victory.

In April, 1801, England struck a ter-
rible blow at this coalition. A British
fleet attacked Copenhagen, and after a
desperate struggle silenced the Danish
forts and captured the larger part of
the Danish fleet. Denmark was forced
to withdraw from the northern coali-
tion, and the league was soon broken
up by the death of the Czar of Russia.
All parties were now anxious for a ces-
sation of hostilities, and in March, 1802,
the peace of Amiens was concluded.

By this treaty France agreed to with-
draw from Italy and leave the newly -
established republics of that country to
work out their own destiny. England,
on her part, agreed to give up all her
conquests except Ceylon, and to restoie
Malta to the Knights of St. John. This
treaty was not satisfactory to England,

127

128

GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY.

and would not have been made under
the Pitt cabinet ; but that great minis-
ter had withdrawn from the govern-
ment in February, 1801, and had been
succeeded by Mr. Addington, the Speak-
er of the House of Commons, a very dull
man. No one believed it possible for
■"he peace to be of long continuance,
and, as a matter of fact, war broke out
again in May, 1803.

Napoleon seized Hanover, and col-
lected a large army and a fleet of trans-
ports and boats at Boulogne for the
invasion of England. The British gov-
ernment prepared to meet the threat-
ened invasion, and at the same time
sought to organize a new coalition
against France on the continent. Near-
ly 400,000 volunteers enrolled them-
selves for the defence of England.

Pitt Again in Power.

In 1804 the Addington ministry re-
signed, and the peril of the country
forced the king to recall William Pitt
to power. He was greatly broken in
health, and the obstinacy of the king
prevented him from receiving the co-
operation of Fox, Lord Grenville,Wynd-
ham or Dundas, whom he was more
anxious to include in his cabinet. Still
he addressed himself to the task before
him with his old courage.

In 1805 Napoleon, who had in the
meantime become Emperor of the
French, determined to begin the inva-
sion of England, and conceived a skill-
ful plan for dividing the British fleet
and concentrating the entire French
navy in the Channel. By his alliance
with Spain he had obtained the ser-
vices of the Spanish fleet, and witA this
powerful armament he felt sure of pro-
tecting the passage of the Channel by

his army. The French fleet, under
Admiral Villeneuve, sailed from Tou-
lon, and effected a junction with the
Spanish fleet at Corunna. Villeneuve
then sailed to the westward, as if going
to the West Indies, followed by the
English fleet under Eord Nelson. Then
suddenly putting about, he eluded the
English and sailed for Brest, intending
to unite with the French squadron at
that port and crush the English Chan-
nel fleet.

Nelson, upon the disappearance of
the French, returned to the coast of
Spain and encountered the combined
French and Spanish fleets off" Cape Tra-
falgar, on the 21st of October, 1805. He
at once attacked them, signaling to the
fleet his memorable order of the day,
" England expects every man to do his
duty." At the moment of victory he
was shot down by a rifleman, and died
soon after. The sacrifice of England's
greatest sailor was not in vain ; the
French and Spanish fleets were annihi-
lated.

Napoleon's Brilliant Successes.

Before this great victory had rendered
the execution of his attempt upon Eng-
land impossible. Napoleon had been
forced to abandon his plan of invasion
by the formation of the coalition of
Austria, Russia, and England, and the
gathering of the Austro-Russian army
in the East. Breaking up his camp at
Boulogne, he moved his army swiftly
across France into Germany, and en-
tered upon his memorable campaign of
Ulm and Austerlitz. The shock of
Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz was
fatal to Pitt, who had long been failing
in health. He died on the 23d of Jan-
uary, 1806, at the esrly ^'^ of forty-

f

NAPOLEON AND THE QUEEN OF PRUSSIA AT TILSIT

AT TH1« PLACE, IN EASTERN PRUSSIA, THE TREATY OF PEACE BETWEEN FRANCE AND RUSSIA ANO
ALSO BETWEEN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA WAS SIG ED, JULY 7th 180- '

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GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY.

129

seven, a victim to his extraordinary
labors. His loss was felt to be irre-
parable.

The policy of Pitt, to save Europe
from the ambition of France, was vigor-
ously carried out by Mr. Fox, his suc-
cessor. All internal questions were
subordinated to this great end, and for
a while all parties united in supporting

which was to draw upon her the coii^
demnation of the world. The Gren-
ville ministry, which succeeded the
cabinet of Fox, declared the whole coast
of Europe occupied by France and her
allies, from Dantzic to Trieste, to be in
a state of blockade. It was not possible
for even " the mistress of the seas " to
maintain such a gigantic blockadcc

BATTLE OF CAPE TRAFALGAR.

tjie government in its efforts to accom-
plish it. In September, 1806, Fox fol-
lowed P'.tt to the grave, and on the 14th
of October the decisive victory of Jena
laid Prussia and all north Germany at
Napoleon's feet. This might have been
prevented had England been prompt to
assist Prussia in her unequal struggle
with France.

England now ventured upon a step
9

Napoleon retaliated by an act equally
indefensible. He issued decrees ex-
cluding all British commerce from the
continent of Europe, hoping that this
exclusion would involve British man-
ufactures in ruin, and so end the wal>

These decrees, dated from Berlin and
Milan, ordered that all British exports
should be seized wherever found, and
*-^atthis seizure and confiscation should

m

GREAT EVENTS IN ENGI.ISH HISTORY.

extend to all neutral vessels that had
touched at British ports. In this way
he hoped to strip England of her carry-

sels bound for any port of Europe sub-
ject to the blockade to touch first at
some British port, under penalty of

ing trade, which would then pass into
the hands of neutrals.

To prevent this, orders in council
were issued by the English government
in January, 1807, requiring neutral ves-

BATTLE OF AUSTERIvITZ

seizure. These decrees and orders in
council were simply so many outrages
upon the rights of neutral nations, and
were destined to involve England ere
long in a new war.

GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY.

131

In February, 1 807, the G renville min-
istry procured the abolition of the slave
tradeby act of parliament, and England
ceased to take part in that infamous
traffic. This great work was accom-
plished in the face of a fierce opposition
/from the Tory party and the merchants
of Liverpool, the latter of whom were
unwilling to give up the profits con-
nected with the trade in human flesh
and blood. Encouraged by this suc-
cess, the ministers endeavored to re-
move the civil disabilities of Roman
Catholic citizens, but upon the first in-
timation of their scheme were dismissed
by the king.

English. Alliance Prevented.

A. new ministry was formed under the
Duke of Portland. Its leading spirit
was the young foreign secretary, George
Canning, an able and devoted disciple
of Pitt. He came into office at a crit-
ical time. Napoleon, after the con-
quest of Prussia, had marched into
Poland, and though checked by his re-
verse at Eyleau, had won the decisive
victory of Friedland, by which Russia
was forced to consent to the treaty of
Tilsit. The Emperor Alexander now
began to court the friendship of Napo-
leon in the hope of obtaining the assist-
ance of France in the conquest of Tur-
key. Russia closed her ports to British
commerce, and compelled Sweden to do
likewise, and to renounce the English
alliance.

Russia and Sweden hoped to add Den-
mark to their league, and so obtain the
services of the Danish fleet in their ef-
fort to destroy the maritime supremacy
of England. Canning prevented the
success of this scheme by secretly equip-
ping a fleet in the summer of 1 807 and !

despatching it to Copenhagen with a
demand for the surrender of the Danish
fleet into the hands of England, which
power guaranteed its safe return at the
close of the war.

Denmark returned a spirited refusal
to this demand, and Copenhagen was
subjected to a terrible bombardment
and forced to surrender. The whole
Danish fleet, with an immense quantity
of naval stores, was carried into Eng-
lish ports.

In spite of England's success at sea,
however. Napoleon was supreme on the
land, and carried out his designs on the
continent without hindrance. He held
Prussia down by force; changed Hol-
land into a monarchy, and bestowed its
crown upon his brother Louis ; erected
the electorates of Hanover and Hesse
Cassel into the kingdom of Westphalia,
which he gave to his brother Jerome ;
made his brother Joseph King of Na-
ples, and annexed the remainder of
Italy, even including Rome, to the
French empire.

The "Iron Duke."

Emboldened by this success, he now
sought to make himself master of the
Spanish peninsula, and in his attempt
to execute this design met his first great
check. Spain was soon overrun, and
Portugal would have shared its fate had
not Great Britain come to her assistance
with a small but excellent army under
Sir Arthur Wellesley and Sir John
Moore. After the death of Sir John
Moore the chief command of the British
forces in the peninsula passed to Sir
Arthur Wellesley, whose able conduct
of the war soon showed him to be one
of the first soldiers of modern times.
The French were driven out of Portu-

132

GRBAT KVBNTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY.

gal, but Moore's unhappy fate gave
them an additional advantage in Spain.
While Napoleon was occupied with his
struggle against Austria, Wellesley
successfully held his own against the
French in Spain, and won for himself a
peerage as Lord Wellington.

Disastrous Defeat.

In July, 1809, a force of 40,000 Eng-
lish soldiers was sent to capture Ant-
werp, but the expedition failed, fully
half of the English troops perishing in
the marshes of Walcheren. This dis-
aster brought about the fall of the Port-
land ministry. It was succeeded by a
new cabinet under the guidance of
Spencer Perceval, a man of no ability,
but who, with his colleagues, was re-
solved to continue the war. The strug-
gle in the peninsula was prosecuted
with vigor, and if the English won their
way slowly, they advanced steadily to-
ward the French frontier. The neces-
sities and disasters of the Russian cam-
paign greatly v/eakened the French
army in Spain, and simplified the task
of lyord Wellington accordingly. Dur-
ing the greater part of 181 1 Wellington
remained wmparatively inactive, as the
unsettled state of affairs at home pre-
vented iiim from receiving the vigorous
support he needed. In 18 13 he drove
the French out of Spain, and crossed
the Pyrenees after them. On the loth
of April, 1 814, he fought the battle of
Toulouse with Marshal Soult, and
brought the war to a close.

In the mean time George III. had
been seized with a return of his insanity
in the early part of 181 1, and the Prince
of Wales had been declared regent by
act of Parliament. The prince regent
was strongly inclined to the Whig

party, and was anxious to replace the
Perceval cabinet with a ministry of that
party. In March, 18 12, Mr. Perceval
was assassinated by a lunatic, and the
prince regent sought to recall the
Whigs to power. He was defeated in
this attempt, and the old ministry, with
Lord Liverpool at its head, was restored
to office.

During the latter part of the Euro-
pean war England had been drawn into
another struggle. The decrees of Na-
poleon and the orders in council of
Great Britain had nearly ruined the
commerce of America, and, after vainly
endeavoring to obtain a revocation of
them, the United States, on the 3d of
Jime, 18 1 2, declared war against Great
Britain. We have related the events of
this war in the American history of this
century. It was closed in December,
1814.

Alliance Against Napoleon.

The return of Napoleon from Elba
induced the allies to make extraordi-
nary efforts for his destruction. An
English army was sent to the frontier
of the Netherlands to unite with the
Prussian army under Marshal Blucher,
which was advancing on the lower
Rhine, and England furnished a sub-
sidy of eleven millions of pounds to
defray the cost of the war. The decisive
blow was struck by the English under
the Duke of Wellington, to whose ex-
ertions and skill the overthrow of Na-
poleon at Waterloo was due.

In the final settlement of the affairs
of Europe England played a prominent
part — an influence to which the great
sacrifices and tremendous efforts she
had made to defeat Napoleon fully en-
titled her. The conquests which she

GREAT EVENTS IN ENGUSH HISTORY.

133

retained at the end of the war were the
Cape of Good Hope, the Dutch posses-
sions in Ceylon, Berbice and the other
Dutch settlement in Guiana, the islands
of Mauritius and the Seychelles, which
were captured from the French ; the
islands of Malta and Heligoland, the
'latter of which had been wrested from
Denmark, and some West India islands
which had been taken from France and
Spain.

The peace of 1 8 1 5 left Great Britain
feverish and exhausted. The national
debt had increased to about $4,000,000,-
000, and the heavy taxation to which
the country had been subjected had
produced general distress. The long
years of strife that had ensued since the
accession of Napoleon to power had
impoverished the continent also, and
had destroyed the market for English
manufactures. An excess of produc-
tion in the last years of the war had
crowded the English manufactories
with unsalable goods, and had put a
stop to the demand for skilled labor.

Discontent in England.

A series of bad harvests produced
great scarcity, and this evil was greatly
increased by the selfish legislation of
the land-owners in Parliament, who
procured the passage of an act prohibit-
ing the importation of foreign corn
until wheat had reached famine prices.
The sudden return of the large body of
jnen employed in the army and navy to
the pursuits of peace added greatly to
the existing troubles, which in 18 16
reached their highest point. The ' ' Lud-
dites," a society of workingmen organ-
ized in 1812 to resist the introduction
of machinery into the mills, now broke
out into a series of outrages and riots

which gave the government great
trouble. In the midst of these dissen-
sions George III., old, blind and insane,
died at Windsor Castle on the 29th of
January, 1820.

Ireland Independent.

One of the chief events of the reign
George III. was the union of Ireland
with Great Britain. In 1782 Ireland
obtained the independence of its par-
liament. It thus ceased to be depend-
ent upon Great Britain, though re-
maining subject to the same king. The
administration of Irish affairs was con-
trolled by a selfish clique, who oppressed
the remainder of the people so griev-
ously that the country sank rapidly
into poverty. Pitt made vain endeavors
to break down this clique and do jus-
tice to Ireland, but was defeated. At
length an association of " United Irish-
men " took up the wrongs of the
country, opened a correspondence with
France, and finally rose in insurrection
in 1796 and 1797, being goaded to this
step by the lawless cruelty of the Orange
yeomanry and the English troops. Sev-
eral expeditions were sent to their as-
sistance from France, but were of little
avail. They were finally defeated ; the
insurrection was put down, and on the
1st of January, 1801, Ireland was for-
mally united to Great Britain. From
this time the Irish parliament was dis-
continued, and the Irish representatives
were sent to the British parliament.

Upon the death of George III., his
3on, the prince regent, ascended the
throne as George IV. He was exceed-
ingly unpopular, and, as he had been
at the head of the government for the
last ten years, his accession to the crown
gave no hope of a change of affairs.

134

GREAT EVENTS IN ENGI^ISH HISTORY.

Within a month after his accession a
plot was discovered by the police, known
as the Cato street conspiracy, which had
been formed by a number of desperate
men, with Arthur Thistlewood at their
head, for the assassination of the whole
ministry. Thistlewood and four of his
accomplices were hanged.

George IV., when still Prince of
Wales, had been induced by his father
to marry his cousin Caroline, Princess
of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel. The mar-
riage took place in 1795. The prince
soon separated from his wife, and charged
her with infidelity to him. His first
act after becoming king was to renew
this charge in the most public manner,
and to cause a bill to be brought into
parliament by the ministry to divorce
and degrade Oueen Caroline on charges
of misconduct. The queen was as pop-
ular with the people as her husbund
was odious to them, and their bitter re-
sentment of the attack upon her forced
the house of Lords to abandon the bill.

No Crown For the Queen.

The king, less sensitive to public
opinion, resolved to oppose her corona-
tion as his wife, and in this step was
supported by the privy council. The
queen was equally determined to main-
tain her rights, and on the morning of
the day appointed for the coronation
presented herself at the doors of West-
minster Abbey, but was refused admis-
sion. This humiliation was fatal to her;
she was taken ill, and died August 7,
1821.

A new ministry, under the Duke of
Wellington, in 1828, reaped the honor
of inaugurating an important measure
of reform which was the outgrowth of
the v/ork begun by Pitt and Canning.

Until the reign of George III. the Roman
Catholic subjects of Great Britain had
remained liable to penal laws of such
severity that the government was never
willing to execute them. In that reign
many of these restrictions were removed
from such Romanists as would take aii
oath prescribed for them, and finally all
grades of the military and naval service
were thrown open to them. They were
still exclued from both houses of parlia-
ment and from certain civil offices and
privileges by the oath of supremacy and
the declaration required of them againsi
the doctrine of transubstantiation, the
sacrifice of the Mass, and the invoca-
tion of the saints.

O'Connell in Parliament.

Pitt attempted to remove these dis-
abilities, but the king firmly refused to
allow the question to be opened. Can-
ning attempted to secure the same ob-
ject, but died too soon. The accession
of the ministry of the Duke of Welling-
ton greatly dampened the hopes of the
Catholics ; but they were soon revived
by the sudden display of strength hy
the Irish Catholics, who elected Danie!
O'Connell, a popular politician, to a
seat in parliament. O' Council was sus-
tained by the entire Catholic population
of Ireland, and demanded the removal
of the disabilities of his co-religionists^
threatening civil war as the alternative.

The danger was very great, and the
Duke of Wellington brought in a bill
which he declared was the only means
of averting civil war, and which ad-
mitted Romanists to parliament and to
all civil and military offices under the
crown, save those of regent, lord chan-
cellor in England and Ireland, lord
lieutenant of Ireland, and some others.

136

GREAT EVENTS IX ENGLISH HISTORY.

The bill passed both houses of pLirlia-
meut, aud received the royal assent ou
the 13th of April, 1829.

In 1S2S another reform was accom-
plished in favor of the Protestant dis-
senters by the repeal of the laws requir-
ing all persons taking office to receive
the holy communion according to the
■fonns of the established church.

Wiiliam IV. on the Throne.

On the 26th of June, 1S30, George
lA'., who had passed the last years of
his life in seclusion at Windsor Castle,
died. His only child, the Princess
(Charlotte, being dead, he was succeeded
by his brother William Henr\-. Duke
of Clarence, who became king as Wil-
liam I\'.

The reformed parliament — the object
of so many hopes and fears — met on the
29th of January-, i S33. It passed several
important acts, but its ^-iolence — espec-
ially tliat of the great Irish agitator,
O'Connell — went far to justify- the fears
of its enemies and produce a feeling of
reaction in the country-. Even the king
went over to the Tories, dismissed the
miuistr}-, aud placed Sir Robert Peel at
tlie head of a new cabinet in November,
1S34. The general election in the fol-
lowing spring restored the Whigs to
power, with Lord Melbourne as chief of
the new ministry.

Although the slave trade had been
abolished by Great Britain, slaver}- ex-
isted in the colonies until 1S33. In
Augfust of that year the "Act for the
Abolition of Slaver}-'' throughout the
British dominions was passed. The gov-
ernment paid to the owners of the slaves
thus liberated the sum of $100,000,000
as compensation for the loss of their
propert}-. In the same vear the com-

mercial monopoly of the East India
Company was abolished, aud the trade
of that country thrown open to the
whole British nation. A new poor law
was enacted in 1S34 to check the grow-
ing e\-ils of pauperism.

In the autumn of 1S30 the Liverpool
and Manchester railway was opened bv
its projector, G^sorge Stephenson. This
was the beginning of the great railway
system of Great Britain. The new sys-
tem of transportation, being found suc-
cessful, was rapidly adopted in various
parts of the kingdom, and proved a
powerful aid in the development of the
trade and wealth of the kingdom.

Queen Victoria.

On the 20th of June, 1837, William
ly. died at Windsor Castle. His only
children, two daughters by his wife
Adelaide, Princess of Saxe-Meiningen,
had both died in infancy. His crown
of Hanover passed to the next male heir,
Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland,
the fifth son of George III., and thus
became forever separated from that of
England. William was succeeded on
the throne of Great Britain and Ireland,
in default of male heirs, by his niece,
the Princess Alexandrina Victoria, the
only child of his brother Edward, Duke
of Kent, the present reigning sovereign.

Queen Victoria was but eighteen years
old at the time of her accession to the
throne, but was popular with all classes
of her subjects. On the loth of Febmar}.
1840, the queen married her cousin,
Albert, Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
a man of many \-irtues, and of ability
and rare good sense, qualities which
won him the aiTection and confidence of
the English people, and enabled him to
retain these feelings throughout his life.

GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY.

137

lu 1839 an association known as the
" Anti-Corn-Law League " was formed,
and devoted itself to the task of spread-
ing its principles by speeches and var-
ious publications. The association suc-
ceeded in gradually enlightening the
English mind as to the effect of pro-
tective laws. Sir Robert Peel, who had
entered office pledged to continue the
protective system, became convinced of
its inexpediency. In 1846 the failure
of the potato crop in Ireland threatened
that countr}- with a terrible famine ;
and at the same time the harvest in
England failed.

Cobden and Free Trade.

This emergency compelled the tri-
umph of the free trade cause, and Sir
Robert Peel was forced to introduce
bills abolishing or reducing to a nomi-
nal figure the duties on foreign corn,
cattle and other articles of food. The
bills were passed, but the resentment of
the Conservatives was bitter, and drove
Peel from office. He was succeeded by
a Whig ministry, under Lord John Rus-
.sell, which continued in office until
1852. The complete operation of the
free trade measures was not secured
until 1849. The credit of the victory
was due to Richard Cobden, the leader
of the free trade party, and one of the
wisest political economists England ever
produced.

In 1853 the designs of Russia upon
Turkey induced England to take a de-
cisive stand against the former power.
An alliance was affected with France
for this purpose in 1854, and was fol-
lowed by the Crimean war. The suffer-
ings of the English army through the
neglect of the government in the wintei
of 1854-55 aroused a storm of indigna-

tion at home, which drove the Aber-
deen ministry from power early in 1855.
A new ministry was formed under Lord
Palmerston, and devoted itself with en-
ergy to the prosecution of the war.

Sebastopol, a fortified town of the
Crimea, underwent an eleven months'
siege by the English and French. The
allied army appeared before the town
September 20th, 1854, and the grand
attack and bombardment commenced,
without success, on the 17th of Oc-
tober following. For many months
assaults were continued, ."-nd after re-
peated bombardments a grand attack
was made September 8th, 1855, upon
the Malakhoff Tower and the Redans,
the most imnortant fortifications to the
south of the town.

A Desperate Struggle.

The French succeeded in capturing
and retaining the Malakhoff. The at-
tacks of the English on the great Redan
and of the French upoi,' the little Re-
dan were successful, bu! the assailants
were compelled to retire, after a desper-
ate struggle, with great loss of life.
The French lost 1646 killed, of whom
5 were generals, 24 superior and 116
inferior officers, 4500 wounded and 1400
missing. The English lost 385 killed,
29 being commissioned and 42 non-
commissioned officers, 1886 wounded
and 176 missing.

In the night the Russians abandoned
the southern and principal part of the
town and fortifications, after destroying
as much as possible, and crossed to the
northern ports. They also sank or
burnt the remainder of the fleet. The
allies found a very great amount of
stores when they entered the town, Sep-
tember 9th. The works were utterly

138

GREAT KVENTS IN BNGIvISH HISTORY.

destroyed in April, 1856, and the town
was restored to the Russians in July.

During the American civil war Eng-
land proclaimed a policy of neutrality,
which was not fairly adhered to, the re-
sult being that a number of Confederate
cruisers, built, armed and manned in
British ports, were suffered to go to
sea and nearly swept American com-
merce out of existence. The United
States were thus given a valid cause of
irritation against Great Britain, and at
a later period presented claims against
that government, which were settled in
a Court of Arbitration by awarding
damages of 15,000,000 dollars to the
government at Washington.

The Franchise Extended.

A bill passed Parliament in August,
1 867, which extended the borough fran-
chise to all rate-payers and lodgers oc-
cupying rooms to the annual value of
^10 ($50). The county franchise was
reduced to ^12 (|6o). Thirty-three
members were withdrawn from the
English boroughs, and of these twenty-
five were distributed among the English
counties ; the rest were assigned to
Scotland and Ireland. This measure
added large numbers of workingmen to
the voting class, and when the elections
of 1868 were held, a lyiberal parliament
was returned by overwhelming majori-
ties. Mr. Disraeli, who had succeeded
Lord Derby as premier, withdrew from
office upon the announcement of the re-
sult, and a liberal ministry, with Mr.
Gladstone at its head, came into power.

The new government addressed itself
with vigor to some of the most difficult
questions of the day. An effiart was
made to remove the chronic discontent
of Ireland by the disestablishment and

disendowment of the Protestant Church
in 1 869. This measure put an end to the
compulsory payment by the Irish of taxes
for the support of a church with which
the vast majority of them had no sympa-
thy. In 1870 a land bill was passed,
which established a sort of tenant-right
in all parts of Ireland. In 1868 the
non-conformists were relieved of the
compulsory payment of church rates ;
and in 1871 still further justice was
done them by the abolition of all reli-
gious tests for admission \o offices or
degrees in the universities.

Public School System.

The army and navy were subjected to
important reforms, and in the former
the system of promotion by purchase
was abolished. In 1871 a bill was passed
by parliament establishing school-boards
in every district, and levying local rates
for their support. In 1871 a radical
step towards parliamentary reform was
taken in the passage of an act estab-
lishing the practice of voting by the
ballot. The magnitude and extent of
Mr. Gladstone's reforms, however,
alarmed the country, and in 1874 a bill
introduced by him for the organization
of university education in Ireland was
defeated. The ministers appealed to
the country, and were answered by the
election of a strongly Conservative par-
liament. Mr. Gladstone and his col-
leagues thereupon resigned their offices,
and were succeeded by a Conservative
ministry, with Mr. Disraeli as premier.

The power of Great Britain in India
continued to increase through the early
part of the century, and was exercised
through the notorious East India Com-
pany. In 181 5 the whole of Ceylon
was brought under English rule, and in

GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY.

139

1819 an English colony was founded at
Singapore, near the southern extremity
of the Malay peninsula, and became one
of the principal markets of the India
trade. In 1833 the charter of the East
India Company expired. The company
was given by the British Parliament the
government of Hindustan for twenty
years, but its monopoly of the Eastern
trade was not renewed ; and the com-
merce of India was made free to all the
subjects of Great Britain.

Opium in China.

One of the principal results of the
establishment of the colony at Singa-
pore was the sudden development of the
opium trade with China. The Chinese
government had previously tolerated
this traffic, but now, becoming alarmed
by the fearful evils which the use of
opium was fastening upon the Chinese
nation, endeavored to put a stop to it.
An imperial edict prohibited the impor-
tation of opium, but the traffic was car-
ried on by the English and Chinese
merchants in defiance of the law. The
trade was very profi.table, and the con-
nivance of the officials could be pur-
chased by large bribes. The imperial
government then ordered the British
merchants to be blockaded in their
warehouses at Canton until they surren-
dered all the opium in their possession,
amounting in value, it is said, to ten
millions of dollars. '

The British government resented this
attempt of China to protect her people
at the expense of English profits, and a
war of two years ensued. Canton was
taken by the English, but was ransomed
for six millions of dollars, and several
other places were bombarded. The Chi-
nese were at length compelled to make

peace, and a treaty was signed at Nan-
kin in August, 1842, by which the island
of Hong Kong was ceded to the British,
and the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foochoo,
Ningpo and Shanghai were thrown open
to the trade of the world, and were made
the official residences of European con-,
suls. China was also compelled to pa}
to Great Britain an indemnity of $21^-
000,000.

In 1838 Great Britain became involved
in a war with the Afghans, for the pur-
pose of restoring to his throne Shah
Sujah, the ruler of Cabul, who had been
deposed by his people. He proved him-
self such an execrable tyrant that he
was murdered by his subjects.

Revolt Against the English.

A general revolt of the Afghans fol-
lowed in 1842, and the British army,
forced to retreat from Cabul, was cut off
almost to a man in the Khyber moun-
tain pass. An expedition under General
Pollock avenged this disaster, and cap-
tured Cabul in 1842. The war, how-
ever, greatly encouraged the natives in
their efforts against the English, and in
1843 ^ "w^^ with the Ameers of Scinde
broke out. It resulted in the conquest
of that country by Sir Charles Napier,
in 1843, who was appointed Governor
of Scinde, and who ruled his province
with firmness and success.

In 1845 and in 1848 there was war
between the British and the Sikhs of
the Punjaub. On the 21st of February,
1849, Lord Gough won the decisive vic-
tory of Goojerat, and this was followed
by the close of the war, and the annex-
ation of the Punjaub to the British
dominions. A little later Sir Henry
Lawrence was appointed to the govern-
ment of the Punjaub, which, since the

140

GRKAT KVKNTS IN KNGI^ISH HISTORY.

days of Alexander the Great, had been
the scene of constant rapine and strife.
His rule was so just and kind that the
Sikhs were completely won over to the
English authority.

The dominion of Great Britain in In-
dia extended over hundreds of millions

received for them from England. The
cartridges of these rifles were supposed
to contain beef-tallow, and as the use of
this article, which is sacred to the Hin-
dus, is forbidden to any devout native,
several regiments objected to using the
cartridges, and their wishes were re-

THE STORMING OF DELHI BY THE ENGLISH.

of people, and had been won and was
maintained by a mere handful of British
troops. The great mass of the troops
employed by the English were natives,
and were known as Sepoys. They were
generally contented, and obeyed their
English officers with readiness and con-
fidence.

In 1856 a supply of Enfield rifles was

spected by the'government, which sup-
pressed the cartridges. The discontent
did not subside, however, but continued
to spread, and early in 1857 a formida-
ble mutiny broke out among the native
troops in Bengal, Oude and the prov-
ince of Delhi.

Wherever they had the power, the
insurgents massacred all the Enoflish

GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY.

141

they could lay hands on, sparing neither
age nor sex. The middle and lower
classes of the population joined the in-
surgents, but the chiefs and large land-
holders as a rule remained faithful to
the government. The insurgents estab-
lished their capital at Delhi, and pro-
claimed its nominal king Emperor of
Hindustan. Cawnpore was besieged by
the Sepoys, and surrendered after a siege
of two hundred days. The promise of
safety made to the garrison was violated
and they were treacherously massacred.

Traitors Punished.

Delhi was taken by the English in
September, 1857, and the insurgents
severely punished. Its emperor was
transported to Burmah, and his two sons
were put to death. The English made
heroic efforts to re-establish their author-
ity, and defeated the greatly superior
forces of the Sepoys over and over again.
Cawnpore was taken by General Have-
lock, who then united his small army
with that of Sir James Outram, and to-
gether they succeeded in relieving the
besieged garrison of Lucknow, the capi-
tal of Oude, which had held out hero-
ically against an overwhelming force of
Sepoys. In this siege Sir Henry Law-
rence was killed.

The insurgents did not abandon their
attempt upon Lucknow after the arrival
of Havelock and Outram, but held on
until March, 1858, nearly five months
after the first investment, when the arri-
val of an English army under Sir Colin
Campbell forced them to retreat after a
severe defeat. The relief of Lucknow
virtually ended the war. The fighting
continued through the summer of 1858,
but the insurrection was crushed, and
its leaders were put to death, or pun-

ished with great severity. The British
power was firmly re-established through-
out India, and no further outbreak has
occurred since this triumph.

In addition to her possessions in India,
Great Britain during the nineteenth
century has built up a flourishing empire
in the southern Pacific. It is larger in
extent, and may yet be of greater im-
portance than India. The vast island
of Australia, which really merits the
title of a continent, is only a part of
these vast possessions.

In 1873 a quarrel broke out between
the English and the King of Ashantee,
in western Africa, with respect to a sti-
pend formerly allowed by the Dutch to
the king. England had been formally
in possession of the Gold Coast and the
old Dutch colonies since 1872, when she
acquired them by treaty with the Dutch.
The colonial authorities now demanded
that the King of Ashantee should with-
draw his warriors from their territory,
but so far from complying with this
demand, the sable potentate proceeded
to levy war upon the English posses-
sions.

The Ashantee Expedition.

Late in 1873 the British government
despatched a force under Sir Garnett
Wolseley to the Gold Coast. He arrived
on the coast about the close of the year,
and at once advanced into the Ashantee
territory. He met with considerable
resistance, and lost many of his men in
consequence of the unhealthiness of the
country, but steadily drove the natives
before him. About the first of Febru-
ary he defeated the Ashantee forces in
a pitched battle in the neighborhood of
Coomassie, their capital, and on the fifth
entered Coomaspie and received the sub-

142

GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY.

mission of the king, who agreed to enter
into a treaty binding himself to respect
the English possessions. This success
broke the Ashantee power for the time,
and gave peace and protection to the
English settlements in western Africa,
and prepared the way for civilization.

On the 2d of May, 1876, Queen Vic-
toria was formally proclaimed, in addi-
tion to her other titles, "Empress of
India."

The struggle of the Irish people for
* ' Home Rule ' ' enters largely in the later
history of Great Britain, Measures en-
forced in the interest of the landlords
have been bravely resisted by the Irish
peasantry. Organized effort was adopted
and a land league was formed, which
became dominant in 1880. In 1881
Gladstone's Land Act was passed, yet
legislation was powerless to appease the
Irish sense of injustice and allay the
excitement.

Foul Murders.

In 1882 Eord Cavendish and Mr.
Burke were appointed secretary and
under-secretary respectively for Ireland.
Upon their arrival in Dublin they were
murdered under circumstances of pecu-
liar atrocity. The act created a pro-
found sensation and served to render the
strife more bitter.

Disraeli (Eord Beaconsfield) having
become prime minister, war broke out
in Egypt and the Soudan. Dissatisfac-
tion at home occasioned the downfall of
Beaconsfield' s ministry, and he was
succeeded by Gladstone, who, not being
able to carry his "Home Rule" meas-
ure, in turn yielded the government to
Lord Salisbury. During 1887, and at
the beginning of 1888, England, al-

though at peace abroad, was agitated
with domestic strife.

On the 2ist of June, 1887, the queen
attended the jubilee services at West-
minster Abbey in honor of the fiftieth
anniversary of her accession to the
throne. The agitation by the Home
Ruleparty of Ireland continued through-
out 1890 and 1 89 1, Mr. Gladstone advo-
cating eloquently the cause of the op-
pressed Irish people. Mr. Parnell, who
by his conspicuous services had greatly
aided the Irish cause, died at Brighton
October 6, 1891.

The Queen's Jubilee.

In June, 1897, Queen Victoria com-
pleted the sixtieth year of her reign,
the longest reign of any English sover-
eign. This event was celebrated by a
jubilee in which not only the people of
England participated, but other nations
through their representatives. The oc-
casion was one of universal rejoicing.

In October, 1899, war broke out be-
tween the English and the Boers, a name
given to the Dutch settlers in South
Africa, since the sixteenth century, who
still retain their national character. Dis-
contented with the British rule in the
Cape since 18 14, large bands of them
in 1835-37 emigrated northward, and
founded the Orange Free State, 1836,
and the Transvaal Republic, 1848, after
much fighting with the natives. In
1899 the English, being greatly dissatis-
fied with the Boers for denying to the
Outlanders, or foreigners, rights that
belonged to them, interfered in behalf
of the English-speaking part of the pop-
ulation, and the result was a sharp con-
test. The spirit of the Boers was shown
by resisting so formidable a power.

CHAPTER ^..

France in the Nineteenth Century.

RMIKS in grand array, victories
but just won and destined ever-
more to be famous, a brilliant
conqueror whose word was
magic and whose tread jarred nations,
empires of the old world startled from
the sleep of ages, mighty forces in con-
flict and new ideas and principles seeth-
ing and mystifying all political phil-
osophers as to what the future would
bring forth — this was the condition of
France when the bell tolled for the de-
parture of the old century and the new
one was ushered in.

The triumphs of Napoleon had already
astonished the world, and tremendous
combinations were forming for his over-
throw. The unsettled state of affairs in
France gave him an opportunity that
he eagerly grasped. His ambition was
boundless and for a time his power
seemed to be. The French Revolution
was just p?">t, and out of the chaos and
confusioi'x a new national life was to
come.

A Directory was formed to adminis-
ter the government, which was now
conducted in a spirit of order and con-
ciliation. In 1797 Bonaparte and his
brother-commanders were omnipotent
in Italy ; Austria was compelled to
give up Belgium and recognize the
Cisalpine Republic. The glory of the
French arms was re-established abroad,
but at home the nation was still suffer-
ing from the shock of the Revolution.
The Directory repudiated two-thirds of
the national debt, and thus almost
ruined the commerce and credit of
France.

Under the pretext of attacking Eng-
land, a fleet of 400 ships and an army
of 36,000 picked men were equipped ;
their destination proved., however, to
be Egypt, whither the Directory sent
Bonaparte; but the young general, re-
signing the command to Kleber, landed
in France in 1799. The Directory fell
on the famous "i8th Brumaire" (9th
of November, 1799); under the constitu-
tion of Siey^s the State was put under
three consuls who, unlike those of
Rome, were three in number, with dif-
ferent degrees of authority.

Bonaparte's Supreme Power.

Napoleon secured supreme power as
First Consul. In 1800 a new constitu-
tion was promulgated, vesting the sole
executive power in Bonaparte, who
showed consummate skill in reorgani-
zing the government, to which he im-
parted a systematic efficiency and a
spirit of centralization that secured a
thoroughly practical administration.
Having resumed his command, he
marched an army over the Alps, at-
tacked the Austrians unawares, and
decided the fate of Italy by his victory
at Marengo. In 1801 the peace of Lune-
ville was concluded, and the boundaries
of France were once more extended to
the Rhine.

England was the only country which
refused to recognize the various Italian
and German conquests of France ; and,
with the exception of a brief period of
peace, England remained the implaca-
ble foe of Bonaparte from the days of
the consulate to his defeat at Waterloo.

143

144

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

Every period of respite from war was
employed by the First Consul in foster-
ing trade and industry, and in oblitera-
ting both in private and public life the
stains left by the Reign of Terror,

In 1804, on an appeal by universal
suffrage to the nation, Bonaparte was
proclaimed Emperor. The Pope came

hands. For a time Napoleon's influ-
ence with the weakened powers of the
Continent succeeded in maintaining an
injurious system of blockade against
England ; and, except in the Peninsula,
his arms were everywhere victorious.
His marriage, too, with the Archduchess
Maria Louisa, a direct descendant ot

BONAPARTE DISSOIvVING THE

to Paris to crown him and his wife Jo-
sephine. Napoleon took the crown
from the hands of the Pope, placed it
on his own head, and then crowned the
Empress Josephine, who knelt before
him. A new nobility was rapidly
created, and the relatives and favorites
of the emperor received vanquished
kingdoms and principalities at his

COUNCII, OF FIVE HUNDRErJ.

the ancient House of Hapsburg, 18 10,
seemed to give to his throne the pres-
tige of birth, which alone it had lacked.
He kept up the Democratic impulse of
the Revolution as much as was wanted
to drive his engine of war. His tactics
would have availed him little against
the successive European coalitions had
he not adopted the principle of national

CORONATION OF NAPOLEON ,AND THE EMPRESS JOSEPHINE.
10 145

146

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

armies, general conscription, and forced
requision introduced by Carnot, the
"organizer" of revolutionary France's
victorious resistance against foreign ag-
gression. This principle has since be-
come the outstanding feature of conti-
nental warfare.

It gave Napoleon an empire including
practically the whole of Europe, except
Russia, Turkey and Great Britain ; when
it was quietly introduced by Prussia, it
assisted effectually in bringing to a close
the emperor's career, but not until he
had made himself king of Italy, 1805,
made of Holland and Naples vassal
kingdoms, 1 806, set up in Germany the
Confederation of the Rhine, conquered
Prussia, 1806-7, occupied Portugal, de-
posed the Bourbons in Spain, 1808,
reduced the Hapsburgs after four cam-
paigns from their medieval title of Ro-
man emperors to the status of emperors
of Austria, made of Rome a French
town, and carried off Pope Pius VII. to
Fontainebleau.

The Emperor's Downfall.

In the long run, the evils attending
his high-handed policy both in France
and out of it undermined his position.
The French navy was destroyed by
Nelson at Trafalgar, 1805, and the sea-
trade of France much injured. His
despotism, the unceasing strain of war,
the burden of conscription, the estrange-
ment between emperor and pope threw
the seed of disaffection among the
French people.

From 181 1 to his final defeat in 181 5
the emperor rapidly lost ground. The
disastrous Russian campaign, in which
his enormous army of 400,000 men was
lost amid the rigors of a northern winter,
was soon followed by the falb""or away

of his allies and feudatories. Napoleon
himself was still victorious wherever he
appeared in person, but his generals
were beaten in numerous engagements;
and the great defeat of lycipzig, 181 3,
compelled the French to retreat beyond
the Rhine. The Swedes brought rein-
forcements to swell the ranks of his
enemies on the east frontier, while the
English pressed on from the south ; the
senate and his ministry betrayed his
cause, and the allies marched on Paris,
which, in the absence of the emperor,
capitulated after a short resistance,
March 30, 18 14.

Begins a New Struggle.

Napoleon now abdicated in favor of
his young son, and retired to the island
of Elba, the sovereignty of which had
been granted to him. His wife and son
removed to Vienna ; his family were
declared to have forfeited the throne ;
France was reduced to her former limits,
and the provinces she had acquired were
restored to their national rulers.

On the 3d of May Louis XVIII. (the
brother of Louis XVI.) made his entry
into Paris. The conduct of the Bour-
bons did not conciliate the nation; they
returned loaded with debts, and sur-
rounded by the old nobility and clergy,
who had not renounced their former
privileges, and who looked upon the
generation of Frenchmen that had arisen
since the Revolution as their natural
enemies.

A narrow spirit influenced the weak
policy of the king, which led to the
establishment of a strict censorship, the
extension of the powers of the police,
and the persecution of the adherents of
the Empire ; while the lower classes
and the army, who alike resented the

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

147

humiliating reaction that had followed
the former excitement' of war and con-
quest, were treated with an indifference,
and even contempt, by the returned
ofl&cials, to which they were wholly un-
accustomed.

On the ist of March, 1815, Napoleon
left Elba and landed in France. The
soldiers flocked around his standard :
the Bourbons fled, and he took posses-
sion of their palaces. The news of his
landing spread terror through Europe ;
and on the 25 th of March a treaty of
alliance was signed at Vienna between
A.ustria, Russia, Prussia and England,
and preparations were at once made to
put down the movement in his favor
and restore the Bourbon dynasty. At
first the old prestige of success seemed
to attend Napoleon ; but on the i8th of ^
June he was defeated at Waterloo ; and,
having placed himself under the safe-
guard of the English he was sent to
the Island of St. Helena, in conformity
with the generally acknowledged senti-
ment that it was necessary to the peace
of Europe to remove him finally and
definitely from the scene of his former
power.

"A Martyr to France."

On the 5th of May, 182 1, the de-
throned Emperor died at St. Helena,
after a captivity of nearly six years, in
the fifty-second year of his age. His
death was sincerely mourned by the
mass of the French people, who re-
garded him as a martyr to the cause of
France.

On the 1 6th of September, 1824,
lyouis XVIII. died. He was succeeded
by his brother, the Count of Artois, who
ascended the throne as Charles X. He
was a true Bourbon ; ignorant) narrow-

minded, a firm believer in absolute rule
and thoroughly under the influence of
the Jesuits. In his disposition he was
frank and cordial, and his friends were
warmly attached to him. He was
crowned in the Cathedral of Rheims, on
the 29th of May, 1825, and the ancient
ceremonial of the Middle Ages was re-
vived in all its details for this occasion.
Charles had been the first to emigrate
from France in 1790, at the outbreak of
the Revolution. He returned to it in
1814 with the same ideas and prejudices
he had taken away with him. The
world had moved far beyond him in the
thirty-five years which had rolled by
since he fled from his country.

The Nation Enraged.

The reactionary tendencies of the new
government alarmed and angered the
nation. The first evidence of this feel-
ing was given at a review of the national
guard in the spring of 1827, when the
troops, upon passing the king, shouted,
" Down with the ministers! Down with
the Jesuits ! " The king at once dis-
banded the national guard of Paris, but
unfortunately for himself left them in
pessession of their arms. In the elec-
tions of 1 827 an overwhelming majority
against the government was returned to
the chamber. The king was obliged to
dismiss his ministers and to summon a
more liberal cabinet.

One of the first acts of the new min-
istry was to remove the system of pub-
lic education from the control of the
Jesuits. This was a very popular meas-
ure with the nation, but it gave great
offence to the king, who, on the 8th of
August, 1829, dismissed the ministers
and appointed a new cabinet, with Pri nee
PoHgnac at its head. The appointment

148

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

of this ministry — every member of
which was noted for his devotion to
absohitism — was regarded by the people
as a declaration of war on the part of
the king against the charter and all the
liberties of Frenchmen. The chamber
of deputies plainly told the king that
the new ministers did not enjoy the con-
fidence of the country, and was dissolved
by the angry sovereign. The deputies
were re-elected by the people, and the
\iew chamber was more than ever in the
hands of the opposition.

Trouble in Algiers.

While this struggle had been going
on in France, a foreign dispute had been
engaging the attention of the govern-
ment. The Dey of Algiers had robbed
the French merchants residing in his
dominions of large sums, and had in-
sulted the French consul upon his de-
manding redress. In the summer of
1829 an expedition under the command
of General Bourmont, the minister of
war, was despatched to Algiers to obtain
redress by force of arms. It landed be-
fore that city, carried its defences by
assault and compelled the dey to sur-
render. Algiers was at once occupied
by the French troops, who were en-
riched with the spoils of the city.

As soon as he learned of the success
of the liberals in the election of 1830,
Charles X. determined to compel the
triumph of his absolute power by em-
ploying a strained interpretation of an
article of the constitution which author-
ized the sovereign ' ' to make regulations
and decrees necessary for the execution
of the laws and the safety of the state.' '
By virtue of this clause he assumed the
right to alter and abrogate some of the
most essential provisions of the charter.

On the 25th of July he issued five or-
dinances, which appeared in the "Moni-
teur " of the 26th. The first of these
suspended the liberty of the press ; the
second dissolved the newly elected cham-
ber of deputies ; the third radically^
changed the system of election ; the '
fourth convoked the chambers for the
28th of September following, and the
fifth appointed some ultra royalists to
the council of state.

The appearance of these ordinances
threw Paris into a tumult. The national
guard took up arms, with the veteran
Lafayette at their head ; the streets were
barricaded ; the tricolor was displayed
in the place of the flag of the Bourbons,
and the royal troops were attacked by
the citizens. The garrison of Paris was
commanded by Marshal Marmont, but
was insufficient to put down the popu-
lace, though it obtained some import-
ant successes.

Troops Driven from Paris.

At length the troops began to frater-
nize with the people. The Louvre and
Tuileries were carried by the populace
and the troops were compelled to retreat
from Paris. Charles X. fled from St.
Cloud to Rambouillet, where, hopeless
of regaining his throne, he abdicated it
in favor of his grandson, the Duke of
Bordeaux. He then quitted the king-
dom and took refuge in England.

In the meantime a number of leading
citizens of Paris, anxious to keep the
revolution within bounds, had prevailed
on the Duke of Orleans, the cousin of
Charles X., who was known to possess
liberal opinions, to assume the control
of the government as lieutenant-general
of the kingdom. He convoked the two
chambers for the 3d of August, and

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

149

those bodies upon assembling declared
the throne vacant by the abdication of
the elder branch of the house of Bour-
bon, and elected Louis Philippe, Duke
of Orleans, " King of the French."

Louis Philippe accepted the crown,
and declared his intention to reign as a
constitutional sovereign. On the 9th
of August he took an oath to maintain
the charter as amended by the cham-
bers in the interests of popular liberty,
and ascended the throne in the presence
of the great officers of the state. Ab-
solutism was dead in France ; the will
of the people was supreme.

An Eye to the Main Chance.

The new king was the son of the
notorious " Philippe Egalite," Duke of
Orleans, who was beheaded during the
French Revolution, and was in his for-
ty-seventh year. He was sincere in his
professions of hberality so long as his
principles did not conflict with his in-
terests ; but he thoroughly understood
the art of accommodating himself to
circumstances. He did not find his new
position a pleasant one, for the legitim-
ists, as the partisans of the elder branch
of the Bourbon family, who supported
the Duke of Bordeaux, were called, de-
nounced hnn as a usurper and a traitor
to his race ; while the Bouapartists de-
clared that he had been made king by
a clique in opposition to the will of the
people.

The leading principles of Louis Phil-
ippe's reign were constitutional govern-
m*:nt at home and peace with foreign
powers. In the internal administration
of the kingdom the king sought hon-
estly to adhere to the charter. Two
legislative chambers secured the rights
of the people, and the elections were

comparatively free. The press was
nominally unshackled, but the govern-
ment continued to exercise a mild cen-
sorship over it. The friendship of
foreign powers, especially of England,
was cultivated, and France scrupulously
refrained from engaging in the affairs of
any European country, except where
her own interests were directly con-
cerned. The internal order of the king-
dom was seriously disturbed by several
popular outbreaks during the first years
of the new reign.

Popular Discontent.

The revolution of 1830 affected the
rest of Europe profoundly. In Italy,
Germany, and Poland, there were out-
breaks of greater or less magnitude.
Belgium had never been satisfied with
its compulsory union with Holland in
18 1 5, and now rose in general insurrec-
tion against the Dutch government.
The Dutch troops were driven out of
Brussels on the 23d of September, after
a stubborn fight, and took refuge in the
fortress of Antwerp. The Belgian prov
inces organized a revolutionary con-
gress, which now appealed to the five
great powers of Europe to protect Bel-
gium against Holland, and King Wil-
liam at the same time made an appeal
to the same powers to compel the Bel-
gians to submit to his authority.

On the 20th of September, 1830, the
five powers signed a protocol recogniz-
ing and guaranteeing the independence
of Belgium as a separate kingdom, the
crown of which was bestowed upon
Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, the
widowed husband of the Princess Char-
lotte, of England. In June, 1831, Leo-
pold was proclaimed king by the Bel-
gian government, and in the course of

150

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

tlie following year married the Princess
lyouisa, the eldest daughter of King
lyouis Philippe.

The King of Holland refused to sub-
mit to the decision of the great powers,
and declined to evacuate Antwerp,
which was held by a garison of 4,000
Dutch troops, under General Chass^.
He also retained the forts on the Scheldt,
A treaty was signed between France
and England for the assistance of the
Belgians. A French army of 50,000
men entered Belgium in November and
laid siege to Antwerp, which, after a
memorable defence, was forced to sur-
render on the 23d of December. The
Dutch king now withdrew his troops
from Belgium, and the French army at
once returned to its own country.

Prominent Statesmen.

The ministers of Louis Philippe were
naturally chosen from the Orleanist
party, which had made him king. Pro-
minent among these were M. Thiers
and M. Guizot, men of great abilities
and widely different opinions. The
former was regarded as the leader of
the more liberal wing of the Orleans
party ; the latter was the avowed cham-
pion of the extreme monarchical wing.
M. Thiers came into office in the min-
istry of Marshal Soult in the spring
of 1832, as minister of the interior.
He betrayed a singular inconsistency
throughout his whole political career.

When out of office he was the cham-
pion of the most liberal opinions ; when
in office he was as conservative as his
great rival, M. Guizot, himself On the
22d of February, 1836, he became prime
minister. Spain was at this time torn
by civil war, and M. Thiers was very
anxious to intervene in her affairs. The

king, however, refused to be guided by
his advice, and the ministry resigned
after an existence of six months.

On the 13th of November, 1836,
Prince lyOuis Napoleon Bonaparte, the
son of Louis and Hortense, and the
nephew of the Emperor Napoleon, made
an attempt to excite a revolt of the gar-
rison of Strasburg, for the avowed pur-
pose of overthrowing the Orleans mon-
archy and re-establishing the empire.
The troops refused to join him, and he
was arrested and sent by way of South
America to New York,

England's Bold Move.

In 1839, Mehemet Ali, the Viceroy of
Egypt, threw off his allegiance to the
sultan and conquered Syria. France,
under the guidance of M. Thiers, who
was once more prime minister, de-
manded that Mehemet Ali should be
allowed to retain Syria and Egypt.
England, on the other hand, insisted
on the imconditional surrender of Syria
to the sultan, and induced the other
powers to sustain her. The result was
that the other four great powers, with-
out communicating their intentions to
France, signed a treaty with Turkey,
in virtue of which an English, Aus-
trian and Turkish fleet reduced the
Syrian ports and compelled Mehemet
Ali to withdraw his forces from Syria
into Egypt. The matter was settled by
assigning Egypt, in independent hered-
itary possession, to Mehemet Ali, and
restoring Syria to the porte.

The "Quadruple Treaty" was re-
garded by the French as an act of
treachery on the part of England, and
a general desire was expressed for war
with that country. The principal re-
sults of the excitement were the fortifi-

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

151

cation of Paris with an enciente and a {
system of detached forts ; and the fall
of M. Thiers' ministry, which was re-
garded as responsible for the advantage
that had been gained by England, A
new ministry, under Marshal Soult, was
installed in October, 1 840. The guid -
ing spirit of this ministry was M. Guizot.
The quarrel with England was settled,
and as a peace-offering Great Britain
agreed that the remains of the Emperor
Napoleon should be removed from St.
Helena to France. They were disin-
terred and conveyed to France by a
French squadron, commanded by Prince
de Joinville, the son of the king. The
squadron reached Cherbourg on the 8th
of December, 1840, and the remains
were transferred to a smaller vessel and
conveyed up the Seine to Paris, where
they were interred in the chapel of the
Hotel des Invalides with the most im-
posing ceremonies.

Death of the Heir Apparent.

On the 13th of July, 1842, the Duke
of Orleans, the eldest son of Louis
Philippe and the heir to the throne,
died from the effects of an accident. He
left two sons — the Count de Paris and
the Duke de Chartres. The former,
who thus became the heir to the throne,
was born in 1838.

The harvests of 1846 and 1847 were
bad, and these failures were followed
by an era of high prices and great dis-
tress throughout the kingdom. Wages
declined and work was scarce. The
king had never been entirely popular
with the people, who wished to be rid
of the whole Bourbon family. The
general discontent at home was in-
creased by the frequent failures in the
foreign policy of France. The Spanish

marriages, the quadruple treaty, the
loss of the English alliance, and other
matters, greatly tended to increase the
dislike which the masses felt for the
Orleans monarchy.

The republicans eagerly fomented this
discontent, and the policy of the gov-
ernment, which was growing more con-
servative every year, greatly simplified
their task. In the session of the cham-
bers in 1847 the liberals demanded cer-
tain reforms which would enforce more
literally the terms of the charter, but
the government, under the guidance of
M. Guizot, firmly refused to grant their
demands.

Political Banquets.

The liberal members of the chamber
now proposed to give a series of ' ' re-
form banquets" in Paris and the pro-
vinces as a means of manifesting the
strength of their party. A banquet
was arranged to be given in Paris, but
was prohibited by the government, and
it was determined that it should take
place in spite of this prohibition. The
government again forbade the banquet.
The king and his ministers fancied
themselves secure, when in reality the
popular discontent had reached such a
pitch that it was ready to break out in
revolution at any moment.

The banquet was abandoned by its
projectors, who had accomplished their
plan of placing the government in an
attitude of hostility to the liberties of
the people ; but on the 2 2d of February,
1848, dense ciowds filled the streets of
Paris, shouting, "Vive la Reforme ! "
An army of nearly 60,000 men had been
collected by the government in the
vicinity of Paris, under the vetern Mar-
shal Bugeaud, but no troops were used
that day.

152

I^RANCE IN run NiNE:rEE:NTH CENTURY.

On the 23d the national guard was
placed under arms, but showed unmis-
takable sympathy with the people, and
prevented the regular troops from dis-
persing the crowds in the street. The
events of this day opened the king's
eyes to the true state of affairs. M.
Guizot at once resigned his office, and
was succeeded by Count Mole, who pro-
ceeded to form a new ministry. It was
too late, however, to put down the out-
break by a change of ministry. That
night a detachment of troops fired upon
a body of rioters which had attacked
them, killing a number of citizens. The
bodies of the slain were paraded by
torchlight through the streets of Paris,
and the republicans and socialists at
once rose in arms.

The King Abdicates.

Barricades were erected, and shouts
of " Vive la Republique ! " rose from
the throng — cries that had not been
heard in France for forty years. Count
Mole now declined the task of forming
a new ministry, and M. Thiers was in-
trusted with it. The first act of the
new minister was to induce the king to
order the troops to withdraw from Paris.
Marshal Bugeaud, upon receiving this
order, resigned his command in disgust.
This was on the 24th of February. On
the same day the troops of the line and
the national guard joined the people
and marched upon the Tuileries. Louis
Philippe, feeling that all was lost,
signed his abdication in favor of his
grandson, the Count de Paris, and with-
drew to St. Cloud.

The insurgents, however, paid no at-
tention to this abdication. The Duchess
of Orleans, with her little son, appeared
in the chamber of deputies and besought

them to sustain the claim of her child
to his grandfather's throne. The mob
broke into the hall at this juncture, and
she was compelled to seek safety in
flight. The royal family fled to Eng-
land, where they obtained an asylum.
There lyouis Philippe died on the 26th
of August, 1850, at the age of seventy*
seven years.

France a Republic.

On the 24th of February the republic
was proclaimed, and a provisional gov-
ernment, consisting of Lamartine, Du-
pont de I'Eure, Arago, Ledru-Rollin,
Marie, Garnier- Pages, and Cremieux,
was installed. There was great danger
that the revolution of 1848 would de-
generate into a socialist insurrection,
which would have plunged France into
deeper misery and have drawn upon
her the enmity of all Europe.

The eloquence of Lamartine secured
the adhesion of the populace to the re-,
public. The mob had already sacked
the Tuileries, burned the throne, and
raised the red flag. Moved by the ap-
peals of Lamartine 100,000 national
guards declared for the provisional gov-
ernment. The socialists were com-
pelled to submit, and the better class of
citizens, who dreaded a triumph of that
party, gave their hearty support to the
republic.

A new element now entered into the
politics of the republic. Prince Louis
Napoleon Bonaparte made a second at-
tempt at revolution at Boulogne, in 1840.
He was captured, and sentenced by the
court of peers to imprisonment for life
in the Castle of Ham. In May, 1846,
he made his escape in the disguise of a
workman, and sought refuge in Eng-
land. He was now elected to the as-

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

163

sembly from the department of the
Seine. The government declared its
intention to prevent his return to France,
and he resigned his seat.

A new election was ordered, and he
vvas returned by five different depart-
ments. This decided manifestation of
jthe popular will induced the govern-
ment to withdraw its opposition. lyouis
Napoleon then crossed the channel, and
on the 26th of September took his seat
as a member for the department of the
Seine. His name aroused the greatest
enthusiasm among the French people,
and without having done anything to
deserve it, he found himself the most ]
popular man in France. The cause of
his popularity lay in the fact that he
Was the heir of the great emperor.

President Napoleon m.

Profiting by this popularity he an-
nounced himself a candidate for the pre-
sidency of the republic, and at the elec-
tion on the loth of December, 1848,
was chosen president by a vote of 5,500,-
000 out of a total vote of 7,326,000, re-
ceiving a large majority over General
Cavaignac and all his other competitors
combined. On the 20th of December
he entered upon the duties of his ofiice,
and took up his official residence at the
palace of the Klysee.

The national assembly was divided
into a number of parties. One of these
supported the president ; another was
devoted to the interests of the legiti-
mists ; a third to those of the Orleans
family ; and a fourth consisted of the
socialist deputies. With the exception
of the first all of these were hostile to
the president. The legitimist and Or-
leanist parties were plotting for the
overthrow of the republic and the res-

toration of the monarchy ; the socialists
were busy working for the downfall of
the republic and the inauguration of
the reign of communism.

These parties hated each other in-
tensely, and were united only in their
enmity to the president. They wished
to overthrow him first, and then settle
their quarrels among themselv<^s. In
this unhappy state of affairs the hopes
of the nation rested upon the president.
Seeing that the fall of the republic was
inevitable, and knowing that neither
of the contending parties possessed the
confidence or represented the wishes of
the French people, Louis Napoleon re-
solved to overthrow them all, seize the
entire government, and appeal to the
people to sustain him. His plans were
laid with skill and carried out with
boldness and decision.

Assembly Dissolved.

On the night of December i, 185 1,
the leading members of the assembly
were arrested, and the government
printing-office was occupied by troops.
Decrees and proclamations were struck
off during the night for use on the
morrow. The army was devoted to the
president and readily aided him in
carrying out this Coup ^' £:^a^.

On the morning of December second
the Parisians were astonished by proc-
lamations from the president announc-
ing that the national assembly was
dissolved; that universal suffrage was
restored ; that a general election was
ordered for the fourteenth of December;
that Paris and the department of the
Seine were placed under martial law.

Another decree gave the names of the
new ministry, stated that the president
would submit to the suffrage? of the

154

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

people a new constitution containing
the following provisions : A responsible
chief magistrate was to be chosen for
ten years ; the ministers were to be re-
sponsible to the president alone ; a coun-
cil of state was to originate laws, which
were to be discussed and voted by a
legislative chamber ; and a senate was
to be created, whose duty it should be
to watch over the constitution and pre-
vent infractions of it.

This constitution was submitted to
the people on the twentieth of Decem-
ber, and was ratified by the votes of
7,500,000 Frenchmen. With the in-
auguration of the new government per-
sonal rule was re-established, and the
experiment of constitutional govern-
ment in France came to an end. The
majority of the French people were
satisfied with the change.

A Direful Panic.

In the meantime, however, the Roy-
alists and Republicans of Paris, recov-
ering from their surprise, took up arms
against the president. An army of 48,-
000 men was directed against them on
the second and third of December, and
their resistance was soon put down.
On the fourth the troops, in a sudden
and causeless panic, fired upon a crowd
of unoffending citizens, killing large
numbers of them. Many prisoners were
taken by the troops from the insurgents.
These were put to death in crowds in
the prisons, and 20,500 persons were
banished to Cayenne.

It had been foreseen from the first
that the president would not rest satis-
fied with the extension of his term of
office. He was following in the foot-
steps of his uncle, the great emperor,
whose heir he was, and the restoration

of the empire was the end of his schemes*
At a grand banquet given to him at
Bordeaux on the 9th of October, 1852,
the president foreshadowed his inten-
tions in his memorable utterance, "The
Empire is Peace."

On the twenty-first of November the
electors were called upon to vote upon'
a plebiscite declaring Louis Napoleon
Bonaparte hereditary Emperor of the
French, with the right of regulating the
order of succession to the throne in his
family. It was accepted by 7,824,189
suffrages, to 253,145 against it. On
the 2nd of December, 1852, the newly
elected sovereign, who took the title
of " Napoleon III., Emperor of the
French," made his solemn entry into
Paris. On the 29th of January, 1853,
he married Eugenie Marie de Guzman,
Countess of Teba, a lady of great beauty,
and descended from one of the most
illustrious families of Spain. By her he
had one son. Napoleon Eugene Louis,
born March 16, 1856.

French and English Alliance.

The first effort of the new emperor
was to gain the moral support which
would result from an alliance with
Great Britain. In order to effect this
alliance he adopted the English policy
concerning the Eastern question. Early
in 1853 the Czar of Russia, believing
that the Turkish empire in Europe was
hastening to its fall, made secret over-
tures to the British government to join
him in a division of the dominions of
the sultan. The proposals we.re rejected ,
and England gladly availed herself jf
the proffered alliance of France.

Matters were not long in coming to a
crisis. The Emperor Nicholas col-
lected a large fleet and army at Sebas-

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

155

topol, and sent Prince Mentschikoflf to
Constantinople to demand of the sultan
larger powers of control over the holy
places of Syria and Palestine, and a pro-
tectorate over all the Greek Christians
within the Turkish dominions. This
would have made him the sovereign of
the majority of the sultan's subjects.
A few weeks later the Russian armies
occupied the Turkish provinces of Mol-
davia and Wallachia.

The Turkish government was panic-
stricken, and but for the firmness of
Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, the British
ambassador, w^ho assured the sultan of
the support of his government, would
have yielded to the Russian demand.
He encouraged the sultan to resist the
unreasonable demands of the czar, and
in the meantime a congress of the pleni-
potentiaries of Austria, Prussia, France
and England met at Vienna, and en-
deavored to settle the difficulty by
negotiations.

War with Russia.

Their efforts failing, the sultan de-
clared war against Russia in October,
1853. The Turkish army under Omar
Pasha at once crossed the Danube, and
defeated the Russians at Oltenitza. In
January, 1854, the Russians were re-
pulsed in a four days' assault upon the
Turkish lines at Kalafat, and retreated.
On the 30th of November, 1853, a
Russian fleet from Sebastopol made a
descent upon Sinope, destroyed a Turk-
ish squadron in the harbor, and bom-
barded the town, killing 4,000 people.

The French and English govern-
ments now demanded that the czar
should withdraw his troops from the
Turkish territory. Nicholas refused to
answer this note, which informed him

that his failure to reply would be taken
as a declaration of war. In March,
1854, France and England entered into
a close alliance with each other and
with Turkey, and declared war against
Russia. The Russian army under Prince
Paskiewitch laid siege to Silistria, in
April, but the Turks defended the placr
with such vigor that the siege was
raised in about a month. A little later
the Russians were defeated by the Turks
at Giurgevo, and abandoned th': Danu-
bian provinces and retreated into their
own country.

Heights of Alma Stormed.

By this retreat the cause of the inter-
vention of France and England was
removed. They resolved, however, to
break the power of Russia in the Black
Sea by destroying the fortifications of
the great stronghold of Sebastopol, the
chief town of the Crimea. A com-
bined expedition was despatched to the
Crimea, and the troops were landed near
the mouth of the river Alma. The next
day, September 20, 1854, the Russian
position on the heights above that
stream was stormed and carried after a
gallant resistance.

The allies now advanced upon Sebas-
topol, the fleet following along the coast
and occupied the port of Balaklava.
Sebastopol was immediately invested.
The town was defended by the Russian
General Todleben, and its resistance of
nearly a year is one of the most memor-
able events in history. The siege was in'
reality a blockade, as the Russians were
able during the whole time to maintain
communication with their country north
of the city. They made several vigor-
ous attempts to break up the investment.

On the 25th of October, 1854, the

156

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

battle of Balaklava was fought for this
purpose. It was made memorable by a
heroic but fruitless charge of the Eng-
lish "lyight Brigade" of cavalry upon
the Russian artillery. On the 5th of
November the Russians hurled a heavy
force upon the English lines at Inker-
mann, but were held in check until the
« arrival of a reinforcement of French
troops made the victory sure for the al-
lies. Still later, on the i6th of August,
1855, the Russians made their last at-
tempt in the stubbornly fought battle
of the Tchernaya, to raise the siege, but
were repulsed. Sardinia had by this
time joined the alliance of France and
England, as has been related, and the
Piedmontese troops won great credit in
this last battle.

Fall of Sebastopol.

On the 8th of September, 1855, the
French stormed and carried the Mala- ;
kofif Tower, the key to the Russian de-
fences, and the English at the same
time carried the important work of the
Great Redan. These successes cost the
allies heavily, but resulted in the evac-
uation of Sebastopol by the Russians.
The city was occupied by the allies, the
Russians retiring to the forts north of
the harbor.

In the meantime the English and
French fleets had entered the Baltic and
Polar Seas, and had inflicted consider-
able loss upon the Russians in those
quarters. Previous to the fall of Sebas-
topol a British fleet entered the Sea of
Azov and captured Kertch and Veni-
kale.

These disasters of Russia were partly
atoned for by the success of her forces
in the Trans-Caucasian provinces. Kars
was taken by the Russian army after a

heroic resistance and other conquests of
importance were made.

The Mexican republic was debtor tc
certain citizens of France, England, and
Spain, and resisted every effort of those
powers to collect their claims. The
debt to these three powers was about
$73,000,000, of which ^263,490 were
due to France. Finding it impossible
to collect their claims by negotiation,
the three governments in 1861 arranged
a joint expedition to Mexico, to compel
her to make provision for payment.
France from the first determined to
make this expedition the means of ac-
quiring a footing in Mexico, which
should lead to the conquest of that
country, and the establishment of a
Eatin empire in America. The scheme
was in reality a revival in another form
of the old French dream of a great
American dominion.

The French in Mexico.

The expedition consisted of eighty-
one vessels, carrying 1,611 guns and
27,911 sailors and troops. It reached
Vera Cruz in December, 1861. The
city and its defences were evacuated by
the Mexicans, and were occupied by
the Spanish troops. In the early part
of the year 1862 England and Spain,
having become convinced of the designs
of France, arranged their difficulties
with Mexico by the convention of Soli-
dad, signed on the 15th of February,
and in April withdrew their forces from
the expedition.

Eeft alone, France reinforced her
army, and placed it under command of
General Forey. During the remainder
of the year 1862 the French were put to
great exertions to hold their own against
the Mexicans. In March, 1863, having

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

157

been reinforced from France, General
Forey laid siege to Puebla, which was
defended with great gallantry by the
Mexicans, and captured it on the i8th
of May, after a siege of two months.
The Mexicans had based their hopes of
saving the capital upon the defence of
Puebla, and made no effort to defend
the city of Mexico, which was entered
by the French army on the loth of June,
1863.

The Emperor Napoleon now pro-
ceeded to carry his designs respecting
Mexico into execution. A council of
notables was summoned, and under a
controlling French influence declared
in favor of the abolition of the repub-
lic, and the establishment of a heredi-
tary empire as the best form of govern-
ment for the country. The notables
subsequently chose the Archduke Max-
imilian, the brother of the Emperor
of Austria, to be Emperor of Mexico.
These acts were submitted to the vote of
the Mexican people, who, under the inti-
midation of the French, ratified them.

Oxir Oountry Intervenes-

In 1866, the Civil War in the United
States being ended, the American gov-
ernment, which had viewed the course
of France in Mexico with avowed dis-
pleasure, demanded of the Emperor
Napoleon the withdrawal of his troops
from Mexico. After some hesitation
Napoleon consented to comply with this
demand, and the withdrawal of the
French troops was begun towards the
close of 1866, the result being that
Maximilian was betrayed by one of his
Mexican generals, was captured and
shot on June 19, 1867.

Alarmed at the rapid increase cf the
power of I- ^ussia, the Emptxor Nc-po-

leon, through M. Benedetti, his minis-
ter at Berlin, demanded the transfer to
France of the territory on the left bank
of the Rhine as a compensation to
France for the great growth of the
Prussian power. Count Bismarck met
the demand with firmness and imme-
diately pronounced it "inadmissible."
It was at once withdrawn.

Scheme to Annex Belgium.

France then proposed to Prussia a
scheme for the annexation of Belgium
to France, and declared that if Prussia
would support her in it, she in her turn
would support Prussia in the subjection
of south Germany to the rule of that
power, Bismarck gave no definite an-
swer to this proposition, but laid Count
Benedetti's draft of the proposed treaty
among the Prussian archives. The
Emperor Napoleon then attempted to
purchase the duchy of Luxembourg
from Holland. The Dutch king, who
was greatly in need of money, was anx-
ious to sell, but the scheme was foiled
by Bismarck, who claimed I^uxembourg
as a part of the old German Confedera-
tion, and garrisoned it with Prussian
troops. The North German Confedera-
tion protested against the sale, and the
transaction was discontinued.

These diplomatic defeats seriously
damaged the prestige of France. A con-
siderable party was anxious to go to war
with Prussia, but the emperor wisely
refused to comply with their demand.
The French army was inferior to that
of Prussia, and had not yet adopted the
breech-loading gun, without which it
would have been folly to attack a power
as well equipped as Prussia. As it was
believed that a struggle with Prussia
was inevitable, the work of reorganiz-

158

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

iiig the French army was pushed for-
ward with vigor.

Since the establishment of the empire,
France had made a great gain in material
prosperity. The eighteen years of Na-
poleon's rule were the most prosperous
period the nation had ever experienced.
The administrative talents of the em-
peror were second only to those of the
great Napoleon, and under his liberal
policy the French commerce was care-
JFully built up, the railroad system of the
country was extended, and the manu-
facturing and mining interests were ex-
panded. The principal cities of the
empire were enlarged, improved, and
beautified, and Paris was made the most
splendid capital of Europe.

War with Prussia.

In the spring of 1 870 the Spaniards en-
deavored to secure a king, their throne
having been left vacant by the revolu-
tion of 1868. France was anxious that
the young Prince of Asturias, the son
of Queen Isabella, should be chosen ; but
the choice of the Spaniards fell upon
Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sig-
maringen, a distant relative of the King
of Prussia. This selection was opposed
by France, and was made the pretext
for a war with Prussia. The Emperor
Napoleon was by no means anxious for
war, but was forced to yield by the
popular clamor and the importunities
of the empress and his counsellors.

At this juncture Count Bismarck
published the draft of the secret treaty
which M. Benedetti had proposed to
him for the acquisition of Belgium by
France. This publication aroused a
great deal of indignation towards
France in Europe, especially in Great
Britain, which had constituted herself

the special guardian of Belgian inde^
pendence. The British government de-
manded of Napoleon ample guarantees
for the observance by France of the
neutrality of Belgium in the struggle
at hand. Wai was at once declared
against Prussia. The hope which the
French government had entertained of
separating south Germany from the
northern federation was destroyed by
the prompt action of the south German
states in support of Prussia.

Soon after the declaration of war the
emperor appointed the Empress Eu-
genie regent during his absence, and
repaired with the prince imperial to
Metz. There he found the French
army but imperfectly prepared for the
struggle before it, notwithstanding the
assertion of his minister of war that
every preparation was complete.

French Armies Defeated-

The news of the fi.rst French disasters
plunged Paris into great despondency.
The senate and corps legislatif were
convened by the empress on the ninth
of August, and the OUivier ministry
was forced to resign. A new ministry,
under Count Palikao, succeeded it.
General Trochu, who was regarded as
an able soldier, was appointed governor
of Paris, and mea,sures were pushed for-
ward for the defence of the city.

The news of the surrender of the em-
peror and MacMahon's army at Sedan
aroused a storm of excitement at Paris.
The streets were filled with a wild
throng of citizens and national guards,
who surrounded the palace of the corps
legislatif, and demanded the overthrow
of the Bonapartes. Jules Favre, in the
legislative chamber, declared that the
empire had ceased to exist, and accom-

FRANCE IN THB NINETEENTH CENTURY.

159

panied by a number of republican depu-
ties repaired to the Hotel de Ville, and
organized a provisional government,
consisting of MM. Arago, Cremieux,
Favre, Ferry, Gambetta, and others.

The mob attacked the Tuileries, but
met with no resistance. The empress,
deserted by all her attendants but one,
and by every domestic, was saved by

mand was refused by the French gov-
ernment, which declared that it would
not give up "an inch of its land oi a
stone of its fortresses." M. Thiers,
though seventy-three years old, made a
journey to the courts of England, Rus-
sia, Austria, and Italy, to ask the me-
diation and moral support of those
powers in behalf of France — but with-

escapb of the empress
the timely arrival of a devoted friend.
Dr. Kvans, an American, who enabled
her to escape to England, where she
was joined by the prince imperial.

The provisional government was
anxious to make peace with Ger-
many, but the King of Prussia demanded
the cession of Alsace and lyorraine,
which had been partly overrun by his
armies, as the price of peace. The de-

EUGENIE FROM FRANCE,
out success. In the meantime the Ger-
mans advanced to Paris, and invested
the city. Communication between the
capital and the provinces was main-
tained by means of balloons.

M. Gambetta, a member of the pro-
visional government, escaped from Paris
in a balloon, and reached Orleans in
safety. He at once began to prepare
the provinces for resistance, and in or

160

FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

der to accomplish his ends assumed dic-
tatorial powers. His efforts were lib-
erally responded to by the nation, and
several new armies were placed in the
field, but the German troops steadily
advanced from victory to victory.

In January, 1871, the city and outly-
ing forts of Paris were surrendered to
the Germans. An armistice of three
weeks was entered into in order to
give the French people an opportunity
to organize a government competent to
conclude a general peace. The new
government at once addressed itself to
the task of conchiding a treaty of peace
with the victors, and on the 26th of
February the preliminaries of peace
were signed at Versailles. With the
exception of a garrison of 40,000 men
in Paris, all the French troops retired
south of the I^oire. On the ist of March
a detachment of the German army en-
tered Paris, but withdrew from the city
on the 3d.

Anarchy Triumphant.

In the confusion which followed the
surrender of Paris, the national guards
were masters of the city. They seized
a large number of cannon, and carried
them to the heights of Montmartre,
where they entrenched themselves.
General Vinoy, commanding the garri-
son of the city, attempted to dislodge
them, but without success. Vinoy then
withdrew his troops to Versailles for
the protection of the assembly, and the
insurgents occupied the Hotel de Ville,
and organized a government which took
the name of the " Commune."

It declared itself the champion of
municipal freedom, and might have ac-
complished much for the cause, but
unhappily the " commune " now passed

out of the hands of its moderate meu:-
bers into those of the revolutionary or
socialist element which had given such
trouble in 1848, and had been held
down by the empire. The worst ele-
ments of the city came into power withii
the walls, robbed the banks, arrestee
imprisoned, or put to death the good
men who sought to control them, and
declared that Paris should be destroyed
if they could not hold it.

Paris Again Besieged.

A reign of terror ensued, and the
forces of the government, under the
command of Marshal MacMahon, which
held possession of the majority of the
outer forts, invested the city, and sub-
jected it to a second siege. Several
severe battles were fought between the
troops of the government and those of
the commune, and though the latter
were routed with great loss, they held
the city with such obstinacy that the
government was forced to ask leave of
Germany, to increase its army north of
the lyoire.

Paris suffei ed in this siege more than
it had during the German bombardment.
The government forces made steady
progress, and at length the outer forts
were entirely in their possession. As
their final defeat became apparent the
communists avenged themselves by
overturning the Napoleon column in
the Place Vendome.

On the 2ist of May the government
troops forced their way into the city, and
during the night the communists pre-
pared for their last resistance. For the
next eight days a desperate struggle
was waged for the possession of the city.
The communists contested every foot of
ground, and as they were beaten back

I^RANCI^ IN tun NINETEENTH CENTURY.

161

miirdered the venerable Archbishop of
Paris and a number of other hostages,
and set fire to the Louvre, the Tuileries,
the Hotel de Ville, and a number of
other public buildings.

An effort was made to burn the city,
but was defeated by the government
troops. At length, on the twenty-eighth
and twenty-ninth, the last positions of
.he communists were stormed and tlie
insurrection was at an end. Immense
numbers of the insurgents of both se.vcs
were shot down by the troops during
the fighting, and thousands of prisoners
were taken. Multitudes of these were
shot by order of the court-martial at
Versailles for participation in the insur-
rection. These military executions con-
tinued until the world was sick of them.

On the lothof May, 1 871, the definite
treaty of peace was signed at Frankfort
between France and Germany.

The Immense Debt Paid.

The revolt of the commune being
over, the government devoted itself en-
ergetically to the task of restoring the
prosperity of the country and putting an
end to the occupation of the provinces
by the Germans. By the terms of the
treaty of Frankfort, the sum of 5,000,-
000,000 francs, or ;^ 1,000,000, 000, was
to be paid to Germany as an indemnity.
This immense sum was to be paid by
instalments ranging over three years.

As security for the debt, the German
army was to occupy, at the expense of
France, the greater part of the territory
which it had overrun ; but the depart-
ments were to be successively evacuated,
in a specified order, as the instalments
were paid. The first effort of the gov-
ernment was to raise a loan of $400,-
Joo.ooo. which enabled it to pay during
11

the month of June three instalments
of the German debt, and thus to secure
the evacuation of the Paris forts and a
considerable portion of the territ)ry
held by the Germans.

This gained for the government of
President Thiers the hearty support of
the nation, and the co-operation of the
assembly. After the adjournment of
the assembly in September, M. Thiers
made satisfactory arrangements for the
payment of the fourth half milliard of
the German debt in the ensuing spring,
and so restricted the German occupation
to six of the eastern departments.

Germans Sent Home.

M. Thiers also succeeded in perfect-
ing arrangements by which the whole
of the German debt was discharged, and
the country entirely evacuated by the
foreign army, in the early part of Sep-
tember, 1873, a year and a half in ad-
vance of the time fixed by the treaty of
Frankfort. The money for this purpose
was raised by means of popular loans
which were readily taken by the French
people, who cordially sustained the
president's efforts to rid the country of
the presence of the conquerors.

During the latter part of the summex
of 1 87 1 the title of M. Thiers was
changed from " Chief of the Executive
Power" to that of "President of the
French Republic."

On the 9th of January, 1873, the ex-
Emperor Napoleon III. died at Chisel-
hurst, in England, where he had resided
since his release from captivity. His
death was sincerely regretted b)' the
French people, to whom, in spite of his
many faults, he had been a wise and
generous friend. By the death of the
ex-emperor the plans of the imperialist

162

l^RANCE IN The NINETBBNTH CENTURY.

party in i^idnce were for the time en-
tirely overthrown.

The government now felt itself strong
enough to proceed with the trial of
Marshal Bazaine for the loss of Metz
during the war with Germany. He was
charged with treason in surrendering
his army and the fortress of Metz with-
out sufficient cause; and on the loth of
December was found guilty by the
court-martial, and was sentenced to
death. His sentence was commuted by
President MacMahon to degradation
from his rank and twenty years impris-
onment. He was confined in the fort-
ress of the island of St. Marguerite, but
succeeded in escaping from it during
the summer of 1874.

Brilliant Statesman Dt^ad

In 1879 M. Jules Grevy was elected
president of the republic by the assem-
bly. The choice for president of the
assembly fell on Gambetta, who, after
an almost unexampled career of pop-
ularity, died December 31, 1882, and
thereby was removed the most brilliant
statesman and strongest personal force
iu the councils of the nation. Owing
to the scandals connected with the sale
and purchase of decorations. President
Ixr^vy resigned in November, 1 887, and
M. Carnot was chosen as his successor.

At Lyons, on June 24, 1894, Presi-
dent Carnot was assassinated by an
Italian anarchist. Great excitement pre-
vailed throughout the country. The
Senate and House of Representatives at
Washington adjourned in honor of the
French president. On June 27th the
National Assembly elected M. Casimir-
Perier to be the successor of President

Carnot. The new president retainea
his office but a short time. On January
15, 1895, he resigned, and on the seven-
teenth of the same month, M. Francois
Felix Faure was elected to be his suc-
cessor. On account of the sudden death
of President Faure, whose adminis-
tration of affairs was successful, the
distinguished Loubet was appointed
president by the National Assembly.

Famous Dreyfus Trial.

In 1 897 Captain Dreyfus, an officer in
the French army, was accused and tried
for treason, and was convicted. The
specific charge was the sale of govern-
ment secrets to German officials con-
cerning the equipments and movements
of the French army. Dreyfus was sent-
enced to imprisonment for life. It was
believed by many distinguished persons
that he was not the real culprit, and
that the fact of his being a Jew would
account for the charge being laid upon
him that should properly have been
attached to others. Emile Zola, the
celebrated author, espoused his cause
with great ardor and was himself tried
for charges made against the French
military authorities, and convicted and
sentenced to pay a fine.

The injustice done to Dreyfus would
not slumber. The case was reopened
and after a most exciting trial in the
summer of 1899, he was again convicted
by a military tribunal, but with a recoKi-
mendation to mercy. By this verdict
the military power shielded itself, and,
by a swift pardon from President lyou-
bet, Dreyfus was restored to his position
in the army and was relieved of thf
charg-es brought against him.

CHAPTER XI.

The New German Empire.

IN common with all the rest of Eu-
rope Germany was disturbed and
deeply agitated by the ambitious
schemes of Napoleon at the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century. Francis
11. came to the throne in 1792, and after
a series of defeats by the armies of the
French Republic, and the adhesion, in
1805, of many of the German princes
to the alliance of France, which led to
the subsequent formation of the Rhenish
Confederation under the protectorate of
Napoleon, resigned the German crown,
and assumed the title of Emperor of
Austria.

From this period till the Congress of
Vienna, 18 14-15, Gei^^iany was almost
entirely at the mercy of Napoleon, who
deposed the established sovereigns, and
dismembered their states in favor of his
partisans and dependants, while he crip-
pled the trade of the country, and ex-
hausted its resources by the extortion
of subsidies or contributions.

The second peace of Paris, in 18 14,
restored to Germany all that had be-
longed to her in 1792, and as a recon-
struction of the old empire was no longer
possible, those states which still main-
tained their sovereignty combined, in
18 15, to form a German Confederation.
Of the three hundred states into which
the empire had once been divided there
now remained only thirty-nine, a num-
ber which was afterwards reduced to
liirty-five by the extinction of several
petty dynasties.

The diet was now reorganized, and
appointed to hold its meetings at Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, after having been for-

mally recognized by all the allied states
as the legislative and executive organ
of the confederation ; but it failed to
satisfy the expectations of the nation,
and soon became a mere political tool
in the hands of the princes, who simply
made its decrees subservient ^0 their
own efforts for the suppression o. ever}'
progressive movement.

New Government Organized.

The festival of the Wartburg, and
the assassination of Kotzebue, were
seized as additional excuses for reaction;
and though the French Revolution of
1830 so influenced some few of the Ger-
man States as to compel their rulers to
grant written constitutions to their sub-
jects, the effect was transient, and it was
not till 1848 that the German nation
gave expression, by open insurrectionary
movements, to the discontent and the
sense of oppression which had long pos-
sessed the minds of the people. The
princes endeavored by hasty concessions
to arrest the progress of republican prin-
ciples, and, fully recognizing the in-
efficiency of the diet, they gave their
sanction to the convocation, by a pro-
visional self-constituted assembly, of a
national congress of representatives o*^"
the people.

Archduke John of Austria was elected
Vicar of the newly-organized national
government; but he soon disappointed
the hopes of the assembly by his evident
attempts to frustrate a'n energetic action
on the side of the parliament, while the
speedy success of the anti-republican
partv in Austria and Prussia damped

ltj3

164

THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE.

the hopes of the progressionists. The
refusal of the king of Prussia to accept
the imperial crown which the parlia-
ment offered him in 1 849, was followed
by the election of a provisional regency
of the empire ; but as nearly half the
members had declined taking part in
hese proceedings, or in a previous meas-
'/ire, by which Austria had been ex-
cluded, by a single vote, from the Ger-
man Confederation, the assembly soon
lapsed into a state of anarchy and im-
potence, which terminated in its dis-
solution.

Insurrections Suppressed.

The sanguinary manner in which in-
surrectionary movements had in the
neanwhile been suppressed by Prussian
troops both in Prussia and Saxony put
an effectual end to republican demon-
strations; and in 1850 Austria and Prus-
sia, after exhibiting mutual jealousy and
ill-will which more than once seemed
likely to end in war, combined to restore
the diet, whose first acts were the inter-
vention in Sleswick-Holstein in favor
of Denmark, and the abolition of the
free constitutions of several of the lesser
states.

From that period the diet became the
arena in which Austria and Prussia
=trove to secure the supremacy and
championship of Germany ; every meas-
ure of public interest was made subser-
vient to the views of one or other of
these rival powers ; and the Sleswick-
Holstein difficulties were the principal
questions under discussion in the federal
parliament, down to the rupture between
Prussia and Austria, and the dissolution
of the Bund in 1866.

The immediate occasion of the war
of rS66 was the difference that arose

between Prussia and Austria, after the
convention of Gastein, 1865, as to the
occupation and disposal of the territory
taken from Denmark in the short war
of 1864. But the real grounds lay in
that rivalry between the two states fo,
the leadership of Germany which haj
shown itself at many epochs of theii
history. There can be little doubt that
the feeling of the German people, as
distinguished from the princes and bu-
reaucracy, had, in recent times at least
been in favor of the purely German
Prussia as their leader, rather than
Austria.

And when the parliament of Frank-
fort, in 1849, offered the imperial crown
to the king of Prussia, the unity of Ger-
many might have been secured without
bloodshed, had the monarch been less
scrupulous, or had he had a B ism arc?'
for his adviser. But that opportunit-"
being let slip, and the incubus of tht
"Bund" being restored, it became ap-
parent that the knot must be cut by the
sword.

Austria and Prussia.

By the treaty of Gastein Austria and
Prussia agreed to a joint occupation of
the Elbe duchies; but to prevent colli-
sion it was judged prudent that Austria
should occupy Holstein, and Prussia
Sleswick. Already a difference of pol-
icy had begun to show itself : Prussia
was believed to have the intention of
annexing the duchies ; while Austria
began to favor the claims of Prince
Frederick of Augustenburg. In the
meantime, both nations were making
ready for the struggle ; and Italy, look-
ing upon the quarrel as a precious op-
portunity to strike a blow for the liber-
ation of Venetia, had secretly entered
into an alliance with Prussia

THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE.

l6e

m the sitting of the German diet,
June I, 1866, Austria, disregarding the
convention of Gastein, placed the whole
matter at the disposal of the Bund, and
then proceeded to convoke the states of
Holstein ' ' to assist in the settlement of
the future destiny of the duchy." Prus-
sia protested against this as an insult
and a violation of treaty ; demanded the
re-establishment of the joint occupation ;
and, while inviting Austria to send
troops into Sleswick, marched troops of
her own into Holstein,

"Act of Violence."

Instea»„ of responding to this invita-
tion, Austria withdrew her forces alto-
gether from Holstein, under protest;
and then, calling attention to this "act
of violence ' ' on the part of Prussia, pro-
posed that the diet should decree " fed-
eral execution" against the enemy of
the empire This eventful resolution
was carried by a great majority on the
14th of June, 1866; Hanover, Saxony,
Hesse-Cassel and Hesse- Darmstadt vot-
ing for it. The resolution having passed,
the Prussian plenipotentiary, in the
name of his government, declared the
German Confederation dissolved for
ever, and immediately withdrev/.

Thereupon identical notes were sent
by Prussia to the courts of Saxony,
Hanover and Hesse-Cassel. The terms
were not accepted, and the Prussian
troops at once took military possession
of the three kingdoms without resist-
ance. War was now declared against
Austria ; the Prussian host, numbering
in all 225,400 men, with 774 guns, in-
vaded Boheinia at three several points.
The Austrians, who had been surprised
in a state of ill-organized unreadiness,
liad assembled an army of 262,400 men

and 716 guns; and the greater portion
of these were stationed, under General
Benedek, behind the Riesengebirge,
expecting the attack from Silesia.

The Prussian armies in the meantime
crossed the Erzgebirge without opposi-
tion, drove the Austrian armv steadily
and quickly back with heavy losses, and
after effecting a junction moved steadily
forward to meet the Austrian army, now
concentrated between Sadowa and Ko-
niggratz. Here, on July 3d, was fought
the decisive battle. The Austrian cav-
alry made heroic efforts to turn the tide
of victory; but the stern, trained valor
of the Prussians, armed with the till
then little known breech-loading "nee-
dle-gun," was invincible, and the Aus-
trian army was broken and dissolved m
precipitate flight.

Disastrous Defeat.

The Prussians lost upwards of 9000
killed and wounded ; the Austrian loss
was 16,235 killed and wounded, a.nd
22,684 prisoners. After this deci5ive
defeat, which is known as the battle ol
Koniggratz or Sadowa, all hope of stay-
ing the advance of the Prussians with
the army of Benedek was at an en(< ; a
truce was asked for, but refused; and
not till the victorious Prussians had
pushed forward towards Vienna, whither
Benedek had drawn his beaten forces,
was a truce obtained through the agency
of the emperor of the French. Italy,
though more than half-inclined to stand
out for the cession by Austria of the
Trentino, as well as Venetia, reluctantly
agreed to the armistice, August 12th.

A brief campaign sufficed for the de-
feat of the minor states of Germany
that had joined Austria — viz., Bavaria,
Wurteinberg, Baden and Hesse-Darm-

166

THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE.

stadt ; and after peace had at last been
arranged, some of them were forced to
submit to a certain loss of territory.
Saxony only escaped incorporation with
Prussia through the resolute opposition
of Austria supported by France ; but
the little kingdom, like all die other
states that had taken arms against Prus-

burg ; and the other states north of the
Main were united with Prussia in a con-
federacy of a more intimate nature than
before existed, called the North German
Confederation.

Austria, by the treaty of Prague,
August 20, 1866, was completely ex-
cluded from participation in the new

BATTLE OF KONIGGRATZ, OR SADOWA.

sia, was forced to pay a heavy war in-
demnity. Even the little principality
of Reuss had to pay 100,000 thalers into
the fund for Prussian invalids.

The states north of the Main which
had taken up arms against Prussia were
completely incorporated — viz., Hanover,
Hesse- Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort and a
small portion of Hesse-Darmstadt, as
"rell as Sleswick-Holstein and I^auen-

organization of the German states, and
formally agreed to the surrender of
Venetia to Italy, to the incorporation
of Sleswick-Holstein with Prussia, aud-
io the new arrangements made by Prus-
sia in Germany. A portion of the fifth
article of this treaty secured that, if the
"inhabitants of the northern districts
of Sleswick declare, by a free vote, their
desire to be united to Denmark, they

THE NEW GEEMAN EMPIRE.

16?

<shall be restored accordingly;" but
this was withdrawn in 1878 by secret
treaty between Austria and Germany.
Though losing no territory to Prussia,
Austria had to pay forty millions of
thalers for the expenses of the war.

The North German Confederation, as
thus constituted, possessed a common
parliament, elected by universal suff-
rage, in which each state was represented
according to its population. The first
or constituent parliament met early in
1867, and adopted, with a few modifica-
tions, the constitution proposed by
Count Bismarck. The new elections
then took place, and the first regular
North German parliament met in Sep-
tember, 1867.

Union of German States.

According to this constitution, there
was to be a common army and fleet,
under the sole command of Prussia ;
a common diplomatic representation
abroad, of necessity little else than Prus-
sian ; and to Prussia also was entrusted
the management of the posts and tele-
graphs in the Confederation.

The southern German states which
up to this point had not joined the Bund
were Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemberg,
Hesse-Darmstadt and Liechtenstein,
with a joint area of 43,990 square miles,
and a total population of 8,524,460.
But, though these states were not form-
ally members of the Bund, they were
so practically, for they were bound to
Prussia by treaties of alliance offensive
and defensive, so that in the event of a
war the king of Prussia would have at
his disposal an armed force of upwards
of 1,100,000 men.

During the next few years the North
German Confederation was employed in

consolidating and stiengthening itself,
and in trying to induce the southern
states to join the league. The commer-
cial union was remodeled and extended,
until by the year 1868 every part of
Germany was a member of it, with the
exception of the cities of Hamburg and
Bremen, and a small part of Baden,
This paved the way for the formal en-
trance of the southern states into the
confederation ; but they still hung back,
though the ideal of a united Germany
was gradually growing in force and

favor.

Impending War.

In the spring of 1 867 a war between
Prussia and France seemed imminent,
from difficulties arising out of the occu-
pation of Luxemburg by the former ;
but by the good offices of the British
government a congress of the great
powers, Italy included, was assembled
in London, at which an arrangement
satisfactory to both nations was amica-
bly agreed upon, Luxemburg remaining
in the possession of the king of Hol-
land. It was evident, however, that
hostilities had only been postponed, and
on both sides extensive military prepa-
rations were carried on.

In 1870 the long-threatened war be-
tween Prussia and France broke out.
On July 4th of that year the provisional
government of Spain elected Prince
Leopold of Hohenzollern, a relative of
King William of Prussia, to fill their
vacant throne. This step gave the
greatest umbrage to the French govern-
ment ; and though, by the advice of
William I. of Prussia, Prince Leopold
resigned his candidature, it was not sat-
isfied, but demanded an assurance that
Prussia would at no future period sanc-
tion his claims.

m

THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE.

This assurance the king refused to
give; and on the 19th of July the em-
peror of the French proclaimed war
against Prussia. Contrary to the expec-
tation of France, the southern German
states at once decided to support Prus-
sia and the northern states, and placed
their armies, which were eventually

Germans were splendidly organized, and
much superior in number. The result
was that the French, instead of march-
ing to Berlin as they anticipated, never
crossed the Rhine, and had to fight at a
disadvantage in Alsace and Lorraine.

On August 2d the French obtained
some trifling success at Saarbruck, but

THE BATTLE OF GRAVELOTTE.

commanded by the Crown-prince of
Prussia, at the disposal of King Wil-
liam.

By the end of July the forces of both
countries were congregated on the fron-
tier Napoleon, however, lost a fort-
night in delays after the declaration of
war, and it was discovered that the
French army was by no means in a state
of satisfactory preparation, while the

the rapidly following battles of Weis-
senburg, August 4th, Worth and Spic-
heren, both August 6th, were important
German victories. The German ad-
vance was hardly checked for a moment,
though the losses on both sides were
very heavy. The battle of Gravelotte,
in which King William commanded in
person, was fought on the i8th ; and
though the Germans suffered immense

THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE.

161

loss, they were again victorious, and
forced Bazaine to shut himself up in
Metz.

The Emperor Napoleon and Marshal
MacMahon in vain attempted to proceed
to the relief of Bazaine. They were
surrounded at Sedan, and completely
defeated with heavy loss. The emperor
surrendered on the 2d of September,
with his whole army, about 90,000 men,
and was sent as a prisoner into Ger-
many. By the 19th of September the
Prussians had reached Paris, and com-
menced a vigorous siege. Strasburg
capitulated on the 27th after a severe
bombardment ; and on October 28th
Bazaine surrendered Metz with an army
of 6000 officers and 173,000 men, 400
pieces of artillery, 100 mitrailleuses and
53 eagles. Verdun capitulated on the
8th of November ; Thionville followed
on the 24tli ; after which there were
several capitulations of lesser import-
ance.

Succession of Defeats.

The French made extraordinary ef-
forts to raise armies and relieve Paris,
but with the exception of a momentary
gleam of success on the lyoire, they met
with nothing but severe defeats. Of
these may be mentioned the battle of
December 3d in the Forest of Orleans,
and that of Le Mans, January 12th, in
which contests Prince Frederick-Charles
took altogether 30,000 prisoners.

After numerous unsuccessful sorties,
and enduring great sufferings from fam-
ine, Paris surrendered on the 29th of
January, and the war was virtually at
an end. The French army of the East,
80,000 strong, under Bourbaki, was
compelled to retire to Switzerland on
the 31st. By the peace of Frankfort,

May 10, 1 87 1, France was condemnec^
to pay a heavy war indemnity, and the
province of Alsace, along with the
German part of L<orraine, was ceded to
Germany.

A very important result of the wai
was to complete the fusion of the north-
ern and southern states of Germany.
The southern states joined at once ir
the war against France ; in November
of 1870, Baden and Hesse leading the
way, they all became members of the
German Confederation; and next month
the re-establishment of the German em-
pire was almost unanimously resolved,
with the king of Prussia as hereditary
emperor. It was at Versailles, on the
1 8th of January, 1871, that the king was
proclaimed emperor of Germany.

Empire of Prussia.

The new Germaii empire set vigor-
ously to work to organize itself as a
united federation, under the skillful
leadership of Prince Bismarck, who was
appointed Reichskanzler or Imperial
Chancellor. Almost at once it found
itself involved in the ecclesiastical con-
test with the Church of Rome, known
as the " Kulturkampf, " which had pre-
viously begun in Prussia. The origin
of the struggle was an effort to vindi-
cate the right of the state to interfere,
somewhat intimately, with the behavior,
appointments, and even educational
affairs of all religious societies in the
country.

The Jesuits were expelled in 1872,
and Pope Pius IX. retorted by declining
to receive the German ambassador. The
famous Falk or May Laws were passed
in Prussia in 1873-4-5, and some of
their provisions were extended to the
empire. Several German prelates, re-

£70

THE NBW GEJlMAN HMPIfiB.

fusing obedience, were expelled from
Germany ; and the disorganization in
ecclesiastical affairs became so serious
that the Reichstag passed a law in 1874
making marriage a civil rite. The
Pope issued an encyclical declaring the
Falk laws invalid, and matters seemed
for a time to be at a deadlock.

Prussia and the Papacy.

On the election of a new pope, Leo
XIII., in 1878, attempts were made to
arrange a compromise between the em-
pire and the papal see. Falk, the Prus-
sian " Kultus "-minister, resigned in
1879, and certain modifications were
made in the obnoxious laws in 1881 and
1883. Bismarck took a further step to-
wards Canossa in 1885, when he pro-
posed the pope as arbiter between Ger-
many and Spain in the dispute as to
the possession of the Caroline Islands ;
and he practically owned himself beaten
in the concession which he granted in
revisions of the politico-ecclesiastical
legislation in 1886 and 1887. Another
semi-religious difficulty which deman-
ded government interference was the
social persecution of the Jews, which
reached a climax in 1880-81.

In more strictly political affairs the
rapid spread of socialism excited the
alarm of the government. Two at-
tempts on the life of the emperor, in
May and June, 1878, were attributed
more or less directly to the Social Demo-
crat organization, and gave the signal
for legislative measures, conferring very
extensive powers upon the administra-
tion to be used in suppressing the influ-
ence of socialism. These socialist laws,
though limited in duration, have in-
/ariably been renewed (sometimes with
added stringency) before their validity

expired ; in 1889 several of the most
important towns of the empire were in
what is called "the minor state of siege"
for police purposes, and a new per-
manent socialist law was proposed by
the government in October of that year.
A plot, happily futile, to blow up the
emperor and other German rulers at the
inauguration of the National Monument
in the Niederwald in 1883 was consid-
ered by the government to justify its
repressive measures. Prince Bismarck,
however, was not content with repressive
measures ; he endeavored by improving
the condition of the working-classes to
cut the ground from beneath the feet of
the socialistic propagandists.

Laws for the Working-Glasses.

The acknowledgment in the empe-
ror's message to the Reichstag, in 1881,
that the working-classes have a right to
be considered by the state, was followed
by laws compelling employers to insu ■ -
their workmen in case of sickness and
of accident, and by the introduction,
1 888, of compulsory insurance for work-
men against death and old age — meas-
ures that have been by some called
" state-socialism."

The energetic commercial policy of
government also, which since 1 879 has
been strongly protectionist, had its
springs in similar considerations; and
the colonial policy, which began in
1884 with the acquisition of Angra Pe-
quena, may be considered to be stimu-
lated partly by the desire to gratify the
national self-respect, and partly to pro-
vide new outlets under the German flag
for the surplus population, and new
markets for the home manufactures.

None of the German colonies as yet,
however, either in Africa or the Pacific

THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE.

1?1

Ocean, have proved of any great com-
mercial value. The assembling of the
Congo Congress at Berlin, in 1885, fitly
marked Germany's admission to the list
of colonial powers. On the mainten-
ance and improvement of the army and
navy the German government has be-
stowed the most unremitting care, urged
especially by the attitude of the "Re-
vanche " party in France, though hith-
erto the imperial policy has been en-
tirely pacific.

The National Army.

Considerable parliamentary friction
has been caused more than once by tne
unwillingness of the Reichstag to vote
military supplies to the amount and in
the manner demanded. The national
parliament seeks to exercise a constitu-
tional control over the army. A com-
promise was efiected in 1874, in virtue
of which the military strength was fixed
and the supplies granted for periods of
seven years at a time. In 1886 the gov-
ernment proposed to terminate the cur-
rent Septennate in 1887 instead of 1888,
and to immediately add largely to the
peace strength of the army.

On the rejection of the bill the Reich-
stag was dissolved January, 1887, by the
emperor, and an appeal made to the
country. The Iron Chancellor, Bis-
marck, still possessed the confidence
and the gratitude of the people, and the
new elections in February, 1887, re-
sulted in a crushing defeat for the op-
ponents of the government, notably the
Freisinnige and the Social Democrats.
One of the most remarkable features of
this election was a letter written by the
Pope in favor of the army bill, for which
he subsequently received a quid pro quo
«n a further modification of the May

laws. The Military Septennate Bill was
immediately passed, and was followed
in 1888 by a Military Organization Bill
which made several changes in the con-
ditions of service in the landwehr. The
subsequent budgets showed aii enorm-
ous increase in the extraordinary mili-
tary expenditure. While thus seeking
peace by preparing for war, Germany
had not failed to use diplomacy for the
same end.

A personal meeting of the emperors
of Germany, Austria and Russia, in
1872, was considered a proof of apo-
litical alliance, and, when Russia drifted
somewhat apart from Germany in 1878,
an offensive and defensive alliance was
formed between Austria and Germany in
1 879. Italy afterwards entered this Triple
Alliance. Germany's influence on the
Eastern Question was recognized in
1878, when the plenipotentiaries of the
powers met at the Congress of Berlin.

A New Emperor.

On the 9th of March, 1 888, the Emperor
William I. died. His son Frederick, at
that time suffering from a cancerous
affection of the throat, immediately
issued a proclamation, in which he
promised to consider ' ' new and un-
questionable national needs," and it
was understood, and to some extent felt
that a more liberal era had commenced.
The new emperor, however, died on
June 15 th, and William II., his son, who
succeeded, at once recurred to the pol-
icy of William I. and Prince Bismarck.
Much painful excitement was caused by
a medical dispute as to the nature and
cause of the late emperor's fatal ilhiess,
which speedily developed into a party
question, discussed on both sides with
virulent acrimony. The latter part of

172

THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE.

1888 and the year 1889, were devoted by
the young emperor to visiting the courts
of several of his fellow-sovereigns in
Europe. Germany continued to extend
her colonial empire, not, however, with-
out coming to blows with the natives ;
and in Samoa became temporarily in-
volved in hostilities with one of the
chiefs. Difficulties on the east coast of
Africa led in 1888 to a blockade by the
British and German fleets to prevent
the importation of arms and to check
the slave-trade. This lasted until Oc-
tober, 1889.

Prince Bismarck and his sons, Her-
bert and William, resigned their posi-
tions under the government, March 17,
1890, and two days later. Von Caprivi
was appointed as Bismarck's successor.
Early in July, 1891, Emperor William
visited London, received the "freedom
of the city," and was given an enthu-
siastic reception, which was intended
to strengthen the bonds of peace and
good-will already existing between Ger-
many and England.

Prince Bismarck died on the 30th of

July, 1898. For nearly half a ctnctir)
his name was associated with German
statesmanship, and to him, more than
to all the other statesmen combined,
was due the unity of the German Em-
pire. He was the leading spirit in
all the latest events affecting the nation,
and was one of the gieat commanding
figures in European diplomacy. A man
of giant intellect, wide and varied at-
tainments and indomitable will, he was
possessed of all the elements for suc-
cessful leadership, and the impress of
his strong hand remains upon the Ger-
man Empire.

Difficulties having arisen in 1899
with England and the United States
respecting the Samoan Islands in the
South Pacific, commissioners were ap-
pointed by the three powers to investi-
gate the rights of each, and present a
report for the purpose of obtaining a
basis for a permanent settlement of the
claims of the respective powers. It was
understood that a proposition to parti-
tion the islands was the one most likely
to be adopted.

CHAPTER XII.

Great Events in the History of Russia.

/CONSIDERING the repeated at-
f ^ tempts on the lives of Russian
vHs^^ emperors in the latter part of
the nineteenth century, it is
wdfthy^of note that its beginning was
marked by a royal assassination. The
Emperor Paul was murdered March 24,
1 80 1, and was succeeded by his eldest
son, Alexander I. One of the first acts
of the new emperor was to make peace
with England and France. He, how-
ever, soon changed his policy, and in
1805 joined the third coalition against
France, to which Austria and England
were parties. Events which belong to
general European history, and are well
known, need only to be described briefly

here.

On December 2nd of that year took
place the battle of Austerlitz, in which
the Russians lost more than 20,000 men
and many guns and flags. They accused
their Austrian allies of treachery. The
war was soon ended by the treaty of
Pressburg.

Then occurred the fourth coalition
against France. In 180; Napoleon en-
gaged the Russian general Benningsen
at Eylau. The battle was protracted
and sanguinary, but not decisive. Both
parties abandoned the field and retired
into winter quarters. Next followed
the memorable peace of Tilsit. By
this treaty the Prussian king, Fred-
erick William III., lost half his domin-
Nearly all his Polish possessions

ions.

were to go to the King of Saxony under
the name of the Grand Duchy of War-
saw.

By a secret treaty, it seemea as if

Alexander and Napoleon almost aspired
to divide the world, or at least Europe,
between them. The terms, howevei;
were received by a large party in Rus
sia with disgust. The next important
event in the reign of Alexander was the
conquest of Finland. By a treaty in
September, 1809, Sweden surrendered
Finland, with the whole of East Both-
nia, and a part of West Bothnia, lying
eastward of the river Tornea. The Fins
were allowed a kind of autonomy which
they have preserved to this day.

The annexation of Georgia to Russia
was consolidated at the beginning of
this reign, having been long in prepar-
ation. It led to a war with Persia,
which resulted in the incorporation of
the Province of Shirvan with the Rus-
sian empire in 1806.

The Coming Struggle.
In 1809 commenced the fifth coalition
against Napoleon. Alexander, who was
obliged by treaty to furnish assistance
to the French emperor, did all that he
could to prevent the war. A quarrel
with Turkey led to its invasion by a
Russian army. This war was termi-
nated in 1 812. Russia gave up Molda-
via and Wallachia, which she had occu-
pied, but kept Bessarabia, with the
fortress of Khotin and Bender.

Gradually an estrangement took place

between Alexander and Napoleon, not

only on account of the creation of th<„

Grand Duchy of Warsaw, but because

Russia was suffering greatly from the

, Continental blockade, to which Alex-

I ander had been forced to 'jive his adhe-

.^.. - 173

174

GREAT EVENTS IN RUSSIA.

sion. This led to the great iuvasion
of Russia by Napoleon in 1812.

On May 9, 1812, Napoleon left Paris
for Dresden, and the Russian and French

the Niemen and advanced by forced
marches to Smolensk. Here he d^.
feated the Russians, and again at the
terrible battle of Borodino, and then

THE RUSSIAN FLEET

Ambassadors received their passports.
The grand army comprised 678,000
men, 356,000 of them being French;
and. to oppose them, the Russians as-
.,«mbled 372,000 men. Napoleon crossed

UNDER PL IT SMTv.
entered Moscow, which had been aban-
doned by most of the inhabitants ; soon
afterwards a fire broke out (probably
caused by the order of Rostopchin, the
governor), which raged six da)^ and

GREAT EVENTS IN JIUSSIA.

175

which destroyed the greater part of the
city.

Notwithstanding this disaster, Napo-
leon lingered five weeks among the
ruins, endeavoring to negotiate a peace,
which he seemed to think Alexander
would be sure to grant; but he had
mistaken the spirit of the Emperor and
his people. On the i8th of October
Napoleon reluctantly commenced his
backward march. The weather was
unusually severe, and the country all
round had been devastated by the
French on their march. With their
ranks continually thinned by cold,
hunger, and the skirmishes of the Cos-
sacks who hung upon their rear, the
French reached the Beresina, which
they crossed near Studianka on the
26th-29th of November with great loss.

The struggle on the banks of this
river forms one of the most terrible
pictures in history. At Smorgoni, be-
tween Vilna and Minsk, Napoleon left
the army and hurried to Paris. Finally
the wreck of the grand armee under
Ney crossed the Niemen. Not more
than 80,000 of the whole army are said
o have returned.

A Powerful Alliance.

Frederick William III. of Prussia
now issued a manifesto, and concluded
an alliance with Russia for the re-
establishment of the Prussian mon-
archy- In 18 1 3 took place the battle
of Dresden, and the so-called Battle of
the Nations at Leipsic on October 16
and the two following days. In 18 14
the Russians invaded France with the
allies, and lost many men in the as-
sault upon Paris. After the battle of
\Vaterloo, and the conveyance of Napo-
leon to the island of 8t. Helena, it fell |

to the Russian forces to occupy Cham-
pagne and Iy6rraine.

In the same year Poland was re-
established in a mutilated form, with a
constitution which Alexander, who was
crowned king, swore to observe. In
1825 the emperor died suddenly at
Taganrog at the mouth of the Do^-,
while visiting the southern provinces
of his empire. He had added to the
Russian dominions Finland, Poland,
Bessarabia, and that part of the Cau-
casus which includes Daghestan, Shir-
van, Mingrelia, and Imeretia. Much
was done in this reign to improve the
condition of the serfs. The Raskolniks
were better treated ; many efforts were
made to improve public education, and
the universities of Kazan, Kharkofl,
and St. Petersburg were founded.

Charged with Treason.

One of the chief agents of these re-
forms was the minister Speranski, who
for some time enjoyed the favor of the
emperor, but he attacked so many in-
terests by his measures that a coalition
was formed against him. He was de-
nounced as a traitor, and his enemies
succeeded in getting him removed and
sent as governor to Nijni-Novgorod.
In 1 8 19, when the storm raised against
him had somewhat abated, he was ap-
pointed to the important post of gov-
ernor of Siberia. In 1821 he returned
to St. Petersburg, but he never regained
his former power.

To the mild influence of Speranski
succeeded that of Shishkoff, Novosilt-
zeff, and Arakcheeff. The last of these
men made himself universally detested
in Russia. He rose to great influence
in the time of Paul, and managed to
continue in favor under his son. Be*

178

GREAT E%^NTS IN RUSSIA.

sides tnany other pernicious measures,
it was to him that Russia owed the
ailitary colonies which were so un-
popular and led to serious riots. The
censorship of the press became much
stricter, and many professors of liberal
cendencies were dismissed from their
chairs in the universities.

The country was now filled with
secret societies, and the emperer be-
came gloomy and suspicious. In this
condition of mind he died, a man
thoroughly disenchanted and weary of
life. He has been judged harshly by
some authors ; readers will remember
that Napoleon said of him that he was
false as a Byzantine Greek. To us he
appears as a well-intentioned man, ut-
terly unable to cope with the discord-
ant elements around him. He had
discovered that his life was a failure.

A New Conspiracy.

The heir to the throne according to
the principles of succession recognized
in Russia was Constantine. the second
son of the emperor Paul, since Alexan-
der left no children. But he had of his
own free will secretly renounced his
claim in 1822, having espoused a
Roman Catholic, the Polish princess
Julia Grudzinska. In consequence of
this change in the sovereign's authority,
the conspiracy of the Dekabists broke
out at the end of the year, their object
being to take advantage of the con-
fusion caused by the alteration of the
succession to get constitutional govern-
ment in Russia. Their efforts failed,
but the rebellion was not put down
without great bloodshed.

Five of the conspirators were exe-
cuted, and a great many sent to Siberia.
Some of tlie men implicated were

among the most remarkable of theit
time in Russia, but the whole country
had been long honeycombed with secret
societies, and many of the Russian
officers had learned liberal ideas while
engaged in the campaign against Napo-
leon. So ignorant, however, were the
common people of the most ordinary
political terms that when told to shout
for Constantine and the constitution
they naively asked if the latter was
Constantine' s wife.

Victorious Over Persia.

The new emperor, Nicholas, the next
brother in succession, showed through-
out his reign reactionary tendencies ;
all liberalism was sternly repressed. In
1830 appeared the "Complete Collec-
tion of the Laws of the Russian Em-
pire," which Nicholas had caused to be
codified. He partly restored the right
of primogeniture which had been taken
away by the empress Anna as contrary
to Russian usages, allowing a father to
iriake his eldest son his sole heir. In
spite of the increased severity of the
censorship of the press, literature made
great progress in his reign. From 1826
to 1828 Nicholas was engaged in a war
with Persia, in which the Russians
were completely victorious, having
beaten the enemy at Elizabetpol, and
again under Paskewitch at Javan Bulak,
The war was terminated by the peace
of Turkmantchai, February 22, 1828,
by which Persia ceded to Russia the
provinces of Erivan and Nakhitchevan,
and paid twenty millions of roubles as
an indemnity.

The next foreign enemy was Turkey.
Nicholas had sympathized with the
Greeks m their struggle for independ-
ence, in opposition to tliie policy of

GREAT EVENTS IN RUSSIA.

177

Alexander ; he had also a part to play
as protector of the Orthodox Christians,
who formed a large number of the
sultan's subjects. In consequence of
the sanguinary war which the Turks
were carrying on against the Greeks
and the utter collapse of the latter,
Kngland, France, and Russia signed
the treaty of London in 1827, by which
Aey forced themselves upon the bel-
ligerents as mediators.

Turkish Fleet Destroyed.

From this union resulted the battle
of Navarino, October 20, 1827, in which
the Turkish fleet was annihilated by
that of the allies. Nicholas now pur-
sued the war with Turkey on his own
account ; in Asia Paskewitch defeated
two Turkish armies, and conquered
Brzeroum, and in Europe Diebitsch de-
feated the grand vizier. The Russians
crossed the Balkans and advanced to
Adrianople, where a treaty was signed
in 1829 very disadvantageous to Tur-
key.

In 1 83 1 broke out the Polish insur-
rection. Paskewitch took Warsaw in
1 83 1. The cholera which was then
raging had already carried off Diebitsch
and the Grand Duke Constantine. Po-
land was now entirely at the mercy of
Nicholas. The constitution which had
been granted by Alexander was an-
nulled ; there were to be no more diets ;
and for th*^ ancient palatinates, familiar
to the historical student, were substi-
tuted the governments of Warsaw,
Radom, Lublin, Plock, and Modlin.
The university of Vilna, rendered cele-
brated by Mickiewicz and Lelewel, was
suppressed.

By another treaty with Turkey, that
oi Unkiar-Skelessi, 1833, Russia ac-
12

quired additional rights to meddle with
the internal politics of that country.
Soon after the revolution of 1848, the
Emperor Nicholas, who became even
more reactionary in consequence of the
disturbed state of Europe, answered the
appeal of the Emperor Francis Joseph, 1
and sent an army under Paskewitch to
suppress the Hungarian revolt. After
the capitulation of Gorgei in 1849, the
war was at an end, and the Magyars
cruelly expiated their attempts to pro-
cure constitutional government.

In 1853 broke out the Crimean War.
The emperor was anxious to distribute
the possessions of the " sick man," but
found enemies instead of allies in Eng-
land and France. The chief events of
this memorable struggle were the bat-
tles of the Alma, Balaklava, Inker-
mann, and Tchernaya, and the siege of
Sebastopol; this had been skillfully for-
tified by Todleben, who appears to have
been the only man of genius who came
to the front on either side during the
war. In 1855 the Russians destroyed
the southern side of the city, and re-
treated to the northern.

The War Ended.

In the same year, on March r4th, died
the emperor Nicholas, after a short ill-
ness. Finding all his plans frustrated
he had grown weary of life, and rashly
exposed himself to the severe tempera-
ture of the northern spring. He was
succeeded by his son Alexander II.,
1855-1881, at the age of thirty-seven.
One of the first objects of the new czai
was to put an end to the war, and the
treaty of Paris was signed in 1856, by
which Russia consented to keep no
vessels of war in the Black Sea, and to
give up her protectorate of the Eastern

178

GREAT EVENTS IN RUSSIA.

Christians; the former, it must be
added, she has afterward recovered.

A portion of Russian Bessarabia was
also cut off and added to the Danubian
principalities, which were shortly to be
united under the name of Roumania.
This was afterwards given back to
Russia by the treaty of Berlin. Sebas-

out by his son. The landlords, on re
ceiving an indemnity, now released the
serfs from their seigniorial rights, and
the village commune became the actual
property of the serf. This great revo-
lution was not, however, carried out
without great difficulty.

The Polish insurrection of 1863 was

SEBASTOPOIv DURING THE BOMBARDMENT.

topol also has been rebuilt, so that it is
difficult to see what the practical re-
sults of the Crimean War were, in spite
of the vast bloodshed and expenditure
of treasure which attended it.

The next important measure was the
emancipation of the serfs in 1861. This
great reform had long been meditated
by Nicholas, but he was unable to ac-
complish it, and left it to be carried

a great misfortune to that part of Poland
which had been incorporated with Rus-
sia. On the other hand Finland had
seen her privileges confirmed.

Among important foreign events oi
this reign must be mentioned the cap-
ture of Schamyl in 1859 by Prince
Bariatinski, and the pacification of the
Caucasus ; many of the Circassians, un-
able to endure the peaceful life of cul-

GREAT EVENTS IN RUSSIA.

nn

tivators oi the soil under, the new
regime, migrated to Turkey, where
they have formed one of the most
turbulent elements of the population.
Turkestan also has been gradually sub-
jugated. In 1865 the city of Tashkend
was taken, and in 1867 Alexander II.
created the government of Turkestan.
In 1858 General Muravieff signed a
treaty with the Chinese, by which
Russia acquired all the left bank of the
river Amur. A new port has been
created in Eastern Asia (Vladivostok),
which promises to be a great centre of
trade.

A Terrible Siege.

In 1877 Russia came to the assistance
of the Slavonic Christians against the
Turks. After the terrible siege of
Plevna, nothing stood between them
and the gates of Constantinople. In
1878 the treaty of San Stefano was
signed, by which Roumania became
independent, Servia was enlarged, and
a free Bulgaria, but under Turkish
snzerainty, was created. But these
arrangements were subsequently modi-
fied by the treaty of Berlin. Russia
,9-ot back the portion of Bessarabia
which she had lost, and advanced her
Caucasian frontier.

The new province of Bulgaria was
cut into two, the southern portion being
entitled Eastern Roumelia, with a
Christian governor, to be appointed by
the Porte, and self-government. Austria
acquired a protectorate ovei Bosnia and
Herzegovina. The latter part of the
reign of Alexander II. was a period of
great internal commotion, on account
of the spread of Nihilism, and the at-
tempts upon the emperor's life, which
unfortunately were at last successful.

In the cities in which his despotic
father had walked about fearless, with-
out a single attendant, the mild and
amiable Alexander was in daily peril of
his life.

On April 16, 1866, Karakozoflf shot
at the emperor in St. Petersburg ; in
the following year another attempt was
made by a Pole, Berezowski, while
Alexander was at Paris on a visit to
Napoleon III. ; on April 14, 1879, Solo-
viofiF shot at him. The same year saw
the attempt to blow up the Winter
Palace and to wreck the train by which
the czar was traveling from Moscow tc
St. Petersburg. A similar conspiracy
in 1 88 1, March 13, was successful. Five
of the conspirators, including a womai.,
Sophia Perovskaia, were publicly exe-
cuted.

Plots and Murders

Thus terminated the reign of Alex-
der II., which had lasted nearly twenty-
six years. He died leaving Russia
exhausted by foreign wars and honey-
combed by plots. His wife and eldesi
son Nicholas had died before him, th
latter at Nice. He was succeeded b
his second son Alexander, born in 1845^
whose reign has been characterized by
conspiracies and constant deportations
of suspected persons. It was long be-
fore he ventured to be crowned in his
ancient capital of Moscow, in 1883, and
the chief event since then has beeo the
disturbed relations with England, which
for a time threatened war.

An incident of peaceful significance
was the visit of the emperor of Gei-
many to the czar at Peterhof, July 19-
23, 1888. On the 27th of the sam^^^
month the ninth centenary of the in
troduction of Christianity was cele

180

GREAT EVENTS 5N RUSSIA.

brated at KiefF. The government being
embarrassed on account of the low state
of its treasury, signed an agreement for
a loan of $100,000,000 in November of
this year ; the loan was immediately
taken, chiefly by French capitalists.
Shortly afterward a loan of 700,000,000
francs was concluded with the Roths-
childs and other bankers.

The autumn of 1891 was a period of
great distress throughout a considerable
part of Russia on account of the failure
of the harvests. In some localities the
entire population were reduced to tlie
verge of starvation, and many persons
actually perished from hunger. Meas-
ures of relief were organized by the
government, and large importations of
^rain from the United States mitigated
in some degree the severity of the
calamity.

Very unfavorable comment by other
nations was made upon the action of
the Russian government, resulting in
oppressive measures against the Jews.
The effect of this proscription was
severely felt, and was the cause of great
hardship and suffering. Those of the
Jewish population who were able to
emigrate sought refuge elsewhere.

The year 1899 was characterized by
an important conference in Holland of
commissioners appointed by the great

powers of Europe and by the United
States, for the purpose of acting upon
a proposition by the Czar of Russia for
disarming the nations and ending wai.
Great interest attended the Emperor's
efforts to secure perpetual peace, and it
was generally conceded that an import-
ant step had been taken in that direction.

The deliberations of the conference
were long and earnest, and one of the
results was the formulation of articles
of arbitration which pointed out the
methods of procedure between the na-
tionr in the settlement of disputes. It
was considered a sarcastic commentary
upon this well-meant attempt to abolish
war that the struggle between the Eng-
lish and the South African Republics
should have followed so quickly. It waf
evident that the time was not yet ripi
for fully inaugurating the principle oi
arbitratioUo

A moral result, however, was gained
by the great nations assembling in con-
vention to discuss the question of dis-
armament and to promote a general
peace. This is the highest point gained
in the efforts of the world's philanthro-
pists, statesmen and rulers, to disband
their armies and silence the thunder-roar
of war. So much at least was gained,
and perhaps more, that will be manifest
in the near future.

CHAPTER XIII.
Nations of Northern Europe — Denmark, Sweden and Norway.

N account of the mental de-
rangement of his father, Prince
Frederick VI. was declared re-
gent of Denmark in 1784, and
at the beginning of the century was the
acting ruler, the sovereign in every
thing except the name. He soon
proved his capacity to govern by pass-
ing several judicious enactments.

The peasants living on the crown
lands were gradually emancipated — an
example followed by a number of the
nobility on their respective estates. In
the abolition of the African slave trade
Denmark had the honor of taking the
lead among the governments of Europe.
The crown prince, guided by the
counsels of Count Bernstorff, long re-
mained neutral in the political convul-
sion engendered by the French Revolu-
tion. He continued to adhere stead-
fastly to this plan until in 1801 the
Emperor Paul of Russia having, as in
the case of the Armed Neutrality,
formed a compact of the northern
powers hostile to England, a British
fleet was sent into the Baltic under the
orders of Sir Hyde Parker, with Lord
Nelson as his second in command.

It was this fleet which taught the
Danes that their capital was not im-
pregnable, and that the long line of
men-of-war moored in front of the har-
bor was an insufiicient defence against
such enterprising opponents. The at-
tack took place on the 2d of April, 1801 ;
and the resistance of the Danes was
spirited, but fruitless. The loss of the
English in killed and wounded exceeded
Jiooo men, but that of their opponents

was much greater, and most of theii
shipping was destroyed. Happily little
injury was done to the capital. A cessa-
tion of hostilities took place forthwith,
and was followed by a treaty of peace.
The death of Paul, which occurred
soon afterwards, dissolved the compact
between the northern courts.

But no treaty of peace could be re-
garded as permanent during the ascend-
ancy of Napoleon. After defeating first
Austria and then Prussia, that extra-
ordinary man found means to obtain
the confidence of the Emperor Alexan
der of Russia, and in the autumn of
1807 threatened to make Denmark take
part in the war against England. Al-
though the Danish Government dis-
covered no intention to violate its
neutrality, the English Ministers, eagej
to please the public by acting on a sys-
tem of vigor, despatched to the Baltic
both a fleet and an army, in order to
compel the surrender of the Danish
navy, upon condition of its being re-
t ored in the event of peace.

The Fleet Surrenders.

To such a demand the crown prince
gave an immediate negative, declaring
that he was both able and willing to
maintain his neutrality, and that his
fleet could not be given up on any such
condition. On this the English army «
landed near Copenhagen, laid siege to
that city, and soon obliged the govern-
ment to purchase its safety by surren-
dering the whole of its naval force.

This act, the most questionable in
point of justice of any committed by

181

182

DENMARK, SWKDEN AND NORWAY.

the British Government during the
war, can hardly be defended on the
score of policy. The resentment felt
on the occasion by the Emperor of
Russia was so great as to deprive Eng-
land during four arduous years of the
benefit of his alliance ; and the seizure
of the Danish fleet so exasperated the
crown prince and the nation at large,
that they forthwith declared war against
England, throwing themselves com-
pletely into the arms of France.

The hostilities between England and
Denmark were carried on by sea, partly
at the entrance of the Baltic, and partly
on the coast of Norway. These con-
sisted of a series of actions between
single vessels or small detachments, in
which the Danes fought always with
spirit, and not infrequently with suc-
cess. In regard to trade, both nations
suffered severely — the British merchant-
aen in tb e Baltic being much annoyed
by Danish cruisers, whilst the foreign
trade of Denmark was in a manner
suspended, through the naval superior-
ity of England.

Norway Ceded to Sweden.

The situation of the two countries
;ontinued on the same footing during
^ve years, when at last the overthrow
of Bonaparte in Russia opened a hope
of deliverance to those who were in-
voluntarily his allies. The Danish
Government would now gladly have
made peace with England; but the lat-
ter, in order to secure the cordial co-
operation of Russia and Sweden, had
gone so far as to guarantee to these
powers the cession of Norway on the
•^art of Denmark.

The Danes, ill prepared for so great
a sacrifice, continued their connection

with France during the eventful yeat
1 8 1 3 ; but at the close of that campaign
a superior force was directed by the
allied sovereigns against Holstein, and
the result was. first an armistice, and
eventually a treaty of peace in Januarys
1 8 14. The terms of the peace were,
that Denmark should cede Norway tc
Sweden, and that Sweden, in return
should give up Pomerania to Denmark
But Pomerania, being too distant to
form a suitable appendage to the Danish
territory, was exchanged for a sum of
money and a small district in Lauen-
burg adjoining Holstein. On the part
of England, the conquests made from
Denmark in the East and West Indies
were restored — all, in short, that had
been occupied by British troops, ex-
cepting Heligoland.

The Monarchy in Danger.

After the Congress of Vienna, by
which the extent of the Danish mon-
archy was considerably reduced, the
court of Copenhagen was from time to
time disquieted by a spirit of discontent
manifesting itself in the duchies, and
especially in that of Holstein, the out-
break of which in 1848 threatened the
monarchy with complete dissolution.
A short recapitulation of the relation of
the different parts of the kingdom to
each other will furnish a key to the
better comprehension of these internal
troubles.

When Christian I. of the house of
Oldenburg ascended the throne of Den-
mark in 1448, he was at the same time
elected Duke of Schleswig and Hol-
stein, while his younger brother re-
ceived Oldenburg and Delmenhorst.
In 1544 the older branch was again
divided into two lines, that of the royal

183

184

DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

house of Denmark, and that of the
dukes of Holstein-Gottorp. Several
collateral branches arose afterwards, of
which those that survived were — the
Augustenburg and Glucksburg branches
belong to the royal line, and the ducal
Holstein-Gottorp branch, the head of
which was Peter III. of Russia.

The Danish Possessions.

In 1762 Peter threatened Denmark
with a war, the avowed object of which
was the recovery of Schlesv/ig, which
had been expressly guaranteed to the
Danish Crown by England and France
at the Peace of Stockholm, 1720. His
sudden dethronement, however, pre-
vented him from putting this design
into execution. The Empress Cath-
arine agreed to an accommodation,
which was signed at Copenhagen in
1764, and subsequently confirmed by
the Emperor Paul, 1773, "by which the
ducal part of Schleswig was ceded to
the Crown of Denmark. The czar
abandoned also his part of Holstein in
exchange for Oldenburg and Delmon-
horst, which he transferred to the
younger branch of the Gottorp family.
According to the scheme of Germanic
organization adopted by the Congress
of Vienna, the king of Denmark was
declared member of the Germanic body
on account of Holstein and Lauenburg,
invested with three votes in the Gen-
eral Assembly, and had a place, the
tenth in rank, in the ordinary diet.

After the restoration of peace in
181 5, the States of the Duchy of Hol-
stein, never so cordially blended with
Denmark as those of Schleswig, began
to show their discontent at the con-
tinued non-convocation of their own
assemblies despite the assurances of

Frederick VI. The preparation of a
new constitution for the whole king-
dom was the main pretext by which the
court evaded the claims of the petition-
ers, who met, however, with no better
success from the German diet, before
which they brought their complaints in
1822.

After the stirring year of 1830, the
movement in the duchies, soon to de-
generate into a mutual animosity be-
tween the Danish and German popula-
tion, became more general. The scheme
of the court to meet their demands by
the establishment of separate delibera-
tive assemblies for each of the provinces
failed to satisfy the Holsteiners, who
continually urged the revival of their
long-neglected local laws and privileges.
Nor were matters changed at the acces-
sion in 1838 of Christian VIIL, a prince
noted for his popular sympathies and
liberal principles.

Wide-Spread Rebellion.

The feeling of national animosity was
greatly increased by the issue of certain
orders for Schleswig, which tended to
encourage the culture of the Danish
language to the prejudice of the Ger-
man. The elements of a revolution
being thus in readiness waited only for
some impulse to break forth into ac-
tion. Christian died in the very begin-
ning of 1848, before the outbreak of
the French Revolution in February,
and left his throne to his son Frederick
VII., who had scarcely received the
royal unction when half of his subjects
rose in rebellion against him.

In March, 1848, Prince Frederick of
Augustenburg, having gained over the
garrison of Rendsburg, put himself at
the head of a provincial government

DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

185

proclaimed at Kiel. A Danish army,
marching into Schleswig, easily re-
duced the duchy as far as the banks of
the Eider; but, in the meantime, the
new national assembly of Germany
resolved upon the incorporation of
Schleswig; and the king of Prussia
followed up their resolution by sending
an army into the duchies under the
command of General Wrangel.

The Prussian general, after driving
the Danes from Schleswig, marched
into Jutland; but on the 26th of Au-
gust an armistice was signed at Mal-
moe, and an agreement come to by
which the government of the duchies
was entrusted to a commission of five
members — two nominated by Prussia,
two by Denmark, and the fifth by the
common consent of the four, Denmark
being also promised an indemnification
for the requisitions made in Jr^Tand.

War Goes On.

After the expiration of the armistice,
;he war was renewed with the aid of
Prussian troops and other troops of the
confederacy, from March to July, 1 849,
when Prussia signed a second armistice
for six months. The duchies now con-
tinued to increase their own troops, be-
ing determined to carry on the war at
their own charge without the aid of
Prussia, whose policy they stigmatized
as inconsistent and treacherous. The
chief command of the Schleswig-Hol-
stein army was intrusted to General
Willisen, a scientific and able soldier;
but henceforth the Danes had little to
fear, especially as the cry of German
unity brought but an insignificant num-
ber of volunteers to the camp of the
Holsteiners.

The last victory of the Danes, under

Generals Krogh and Schlepegrell, was
at the battle of Idsted, July 23rd. Near
this small village, protected by Irkes
and bogs, Willisen lay encamped with
his centre, his right wing at Wed-
eispung, extending along the Lake
Langso, his left spreading along the
Arnholtz lake. The Danes approach
ing on the high road from Flensburg
to Schleswig, attacked the enemy on all
sides; and, after having been repeatedly
repulsed, they succeeded in driving the
Schleswig- Holsteiners from all their
positions. The forces engaged on each
side were about 30,000; the number of
killed and wounded on both sides was
upwards of 7,000.

Peace with Prussia.

After the victory of Idsted, the Danes
could hardly expect to meet with any
serious resistance, and the confidence o*^
the court of Copenhagen was further
increased by the peace which was con-
cluded with Prussia, July, 1850, by
which the latter abandoned the duchies
to their own fate, and soon afterwards
aided in their subjection. The sole
question of importance which now
awaited its solution was the order of
succession, which the European powers
thought to be of such importance as to
delay its final settlement till 18520

The extinction of the male line in
King Frederick was an event foreseen
by the king, the people and the foreign
powers. After protracted negotiations
between the different courts, the repre-
sentatives of England, France, Austria,
Russia, Prussia and Sweden, a treaty
relative to the succession was signed in
London, May 8, 1852. According to
this protocol, in case of default of male
issue in the direct line of Frederick VI.,

186

DENMARK, SV/EDEN AND NORWAY.

the crown was to pass to Prince Chris-
tian of Glucksburg, and his wife, the
Princess Louisa, of Hesse, who, through
her mother, Princess Charlotte of Den-
mark, was the niece of King Christian
VIIL

The treaty of London did not fulfill
the expectations of the signitaries as to
a settlement of the agitation in the
duchies. The duke of Augustenburg
had accepted the pardon held out to him
on condition that his family resigned all
claim to the sovereignty. of the duchies,
but he continued to stir up foreign na-
tions about his rights, and when be died
his son Frederick maintained the family
pretensions. At last, in the autumn of
1863, Frederick VII. died very suddenly
at the castle of Glucksburg, in Schles-
wig, the seat of his appointed successor.
As soon as the ministry in Copenhagen
received news of his death. Prince
Christian of Glucksburg was proclaimed
king as Christian IX., and the young
duke of Augustenburg appeared in
Schleswig, assuming tbe title of Fred-
erick VIII

Demands Upon Denmark.

The claims of the pretender were
supported by Prussia, Austria and other
German states, and before the year was
out Generals Gablenz and Wrangel oc-
cupied the duchies in command of Aus-
trian and Prussian troops. The attitude
of Germany was in the highest degree
peremptory, and Denmark was called
upon to give up Schleswig-Holstein to
military occupation by Prussia and Aus-
tria until the claims of the duke of
Augustenburg were settled.

In its dilemma the Danish Govern-
ment applied to England and to France,
and receiving from these powers what

I it rightly or wrongly considered as en-
couragement, it declared war with Ger-
many in the early part of 1864. The
Danes sent their general, De Meza, with
40,000 men to defend the Dannewerk,
the ancient line of defences stretclii.ng
right across the peninsula frorc the/
North Sea to the Baltic. The move-V
ments of General De Meza were not
however, successful ; the Dannewerk,
popularly supposed to be impregnable
was first outflanked and then stormec^.,
and the Danish army fell back on the
heights of Dybbol, near Flensborg,
which was strongly fortified, and took
up a position behind it, across the Little
Belt, in the island of Alsen,

Heroic Courage.

This defeat caused almost a panic in
the country, and, finding that England
and France had no intention of aiding
them, the Danes felt the danger of anni-
hilation close upon them. The courage
of the little nation, however, was heroic,
and they made a splendid stand against
their countless opponents. General Ger-
lach was sent to replace the unlucky De
Meza ; the heights of Dybbol were
harder to take than the Germans had
supposed, but they fell at last, and with
them the strong position of Sonderburg,
in the island of Alsen.

The Germans pushed northwards un-
til they overran every part of the main-
land, as far as the extreme north of Jut-
land. It seemed as though Denmark
must cease to exist among the nations
of Europe ; but the Danes at last gave
way, and were content to accept the
terms of the Peace of Vienna, in Octo-
ber, 1864, by which Christian IX. re-
nounced all claim to Lauenburg, Hol-
stein and Schleswig, and agreed to have

DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

187

no voice in the. final disposal of those
provinces.

For the next two years Europe waited
to see Prussia restore North Schleswig
and Alsen, in which Danish is the popu-
lar language, and which Austria had
demanded should be restored to Den-
mark In case the inhabitants should ex-
press that as their wish by a plebiscite.
When the war broke out between Aus-
tria and Prussia in 1866, and resulted
in the humiliation of Austria, the
chances of restoration passed away, and
the duchies have remained an integral
part of Prussia. Notwithstanding her
dismemberment, Denmark has pros-
pered to an astonishing degree, and her
material fortunes have been constantly
in the ascendant.

Denmark has been very fortunate in
forming marriage alliances with the
most powerful royal houses of Europe.

On the loth of March, 1863, Princess
Alexandra, of Denmark, was married to
the Prince of Wales at Windsor. Her
sister, the Princess Dagmar, was mar-
ried to Prince Alexander, of Russia, on
November 9, 1 866.

In the great Franco-Prussian \^ ar of
1870 Denmark remained neutral, and it
may be said that of late yea.,« she has
sought to maintain a peace policy witb
other nations. She has, however^ beetx
distracted by internal dissensions, but
not to such an extent as to threaten her
constitution or her unity.

King Christian's seventieth birthday
occurred on April 8, 1888, and the 15th
of November of the same year was the
twenty fifth anniversary of his accession
to the throne. Both events were cele-
brated with great enthusiasm through-
out the country, and with renewed
pledges of loyalty to the throne.

SWEDEN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

/®*USTAVUS IV. was not luite
\ ^ I fourteen years old when his
father was murdered, and dur-
ing his minority the government was
carried on by his uncle, the duke of
Sodermanland. Gustavus began to ex-
ercise royal authority in 1796. His reign
was remarkable chiefly ^or the obstinacy
with which he clung to his own ideas,
no matter how far they might conflict
with the obvious interests of his coun-
try. He had a bitter detestation of
Bonaparte, and in 1 803 went to Carls-
ruhe in the hope that he might induce
the emperor and some of the German
princes to act with him in support of
the Bourbons.

His enmity led to an open rupture
with France, and even after the peace

of Tilsit, when Russia and Prussia of-
fered to mediate between him and the
French emperor, he refused to come to
terms. The consequence was that he
lost Stralsund and the island of Riigen.
He displayed so much friendship for
England that Russia and Denmark, act-
ing under the influence of France, de-
clared war against him ; and the whole
of Finland was soon held by Russian
troops.

Gustavus attacked Norway, but hia
army was driven back by the Danes and
Norwegians. He still declined to make
peace, and he even alienated England
when she attempted to influence him by
moderate counsels. The Swedish peo-
ple were so enraged by the consequences
of his policy that in 1809 he was de-

188

DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

throned, and the claims of his descend-
ants to the crown were also repudiated.
He was succeeded by the duke of Soder-
manland, who reigned as Charles XIII.
Charles XIII., 1 809-181 8, concluded
peace with Russia, Denmark and France,
; ceding to Russia by the treaty of Fred-
; erikshamm, 1 809, the whole of Finland.
The loss of this territory, which had
been so long associated with the Swed-
ish monarchy, was bitterly deplored by
the Swedes, but it was universally ad-
mitted that under the circumstances the
sacrifice was unavoidable. Charles as-
sented to important changes in the con-
stitution^ which were intended to bring
to an end the struggle between the
crown and the aristocracy and to pro-
vide some security for the maintenance
of popular rights. The king was still
to be at the head of the executive, but it
was arranged that legislative functions
and control over taxation should belong
to the diet, which was to consist of four
orders— nobles, clergymen, burghers,
and peasants.

Sweden Surprises Europe.

As Charles XIII. was childless, the diet
elected as his successor Prince Christian
Augustus of Holstein-Sonderburg-Au-
gustenburg. In 18 10, soon after his ar-
rival in Stockholm, this prince suddenly
died ; and Sweden astonished Europe by
asking Marshal Bernadotte to become
heir to the throne. Bernadotte, who
took the name of Charles John, was a
man of great vigor and resource, and
soon made himself the real ruler of
vSweden, Napoleon treated Sweden as
almost a conquered country, and com-
pelled her to declare war with England.
Bernadotte, associating himself heartily
V^ith his adopted land, resolved to secure

its independence, and entered into an
alliance with Russia.

In 18 1 3 he started with an army of
20,000 Swedes to co-operate with the
powers which were striving finally to
crush the French emperor. The pro-
ceedings of the Swedish crown prince
were watched with some suspicion by
the allies, as he was evidently unwilling
to strike a decisive blow at France ; but
after the battle of Leipsic he displayed
much activity. He blockaded Hamburg,
and by the peace of Kiel, concluded in
January, 1 8 14, he forced Denmark to give
up Norway. He then entered France,
but soon returned and devoted his ener-
gies to the conquest of Norway, which
was very unwilling to be united with
Sweden. Between the months of July
and November, 18 14, the country was
completely subdued, and Charles XIII.
was proclaimed king.

The Countries United.

The union of Sweden and Norway^
which has ever since been maintained,
was recognized by the Congress of Vi-
enna ; and it was placed on a sound
basis by llie frank adoption of the princi
pie that, while the two countries should
be subject to the same crown and act
together in matters of common interest
each should have complete control ove.
its internal affairs. The new relation
of their country to Norway gave much
satisfaction to the Swedes, whom it con-
soled in some measure for the loss of
Finland. It also made it easy for them
to transfer to Prussia in 1 8 1 5 what re-
mained of their Pomeranian territories.

In 18 1 8 Bernadotte ascended the
throne as Charles XIV., and he reigned
until he died in 1844. Great material
improvements were effected during hif

DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

189

reign. He caused new roads and canals
to be constructed; lie encouraged the
cultivation of districts which had for-
merly been barren ; and he founded good
industrial and naval schools. He v/as
not, however, much liked by his sub-
jects. He never mastered the Swedish
language, and he was so jealous of any
Interference with his authority that he
'"ernly punished the expression of opin-
ions which he disliked.

To the majority of educated Swedes
the constitution seemed to be ill-adapted
to the wants of the nation, and there was
a general demand for a political system
which should make the Government
more directly responsible to the people.
In 1840 a scheme of reform was submit-
ted to the diet by a committee which
had been appointed for the purpose,
but the negotiations and discussions to
which it gave rise led to no definite
result.

King Oscar.

Charles XIV. was succeeded by his
son Oscar L, 1844- 18 59. Oscar had al-
ways expressed sympathy with liberal
opinions, and it was anticipated that the
constitutional question would be settled
during his reign without much diffi-
. ilty. These expectations were disap-
pointed. The diet m.et soon after his
accession, and was asked to accept the
scheme which had been drawn up in
1840. The measure received the cordial
approval of the burghers and peasants,
but was rejected by the nobles and the
clergy. In 1846 a committee was ap-
pointed to prepare a new set of proposals, I
and late in the following year the dis- |
cussion of its plans began. i

While the debates on the subject were I
proceeding some excitement was pro- '^

duced by the revolutionary movement ol
1848, and a new ministry, pledged to the
cause of reform, came into ojEEce. The
scheme devised by this ministry was
accepted by the committee to which it
was referred, but the provisions of the
existing constitution rendered it neces-
sary that the final settlement should
depend upon the vote of the next diet.
When the diet met in 1850 it was found
that the difficulties in the way were for
the time insuperable. The proposals
of the Government were approved by a
majority of the burghers, but they were
opposed by the nobles, the clergy and
the peasantry. The solution of the prob-
lem had, therefore, to ' e indefinitely
postponed.

Valuable Reforms.

Although the constitution was not
reformed, much was done in other ways
during the reign of Oscar I. to promote
the national welfare. The criminal law
was brought into accordance with mod-
ern ideas, and the law of inheritance
was made the same for both sexes and
for all classes of the community. In-
creased freedom was secured for indus-
try and trade ; the methods of adminis-
tration were improved ; and the state
took great pains to provide the country
v^^ith an efficient railway system. The
result of the wise legislation of this
period was that a new spirit of enter-
prise was displayed by the commercial
classes, and that in material prosperity
the people made sure and rapid progress.

In 1848, when the diificulty about
Schleswig-Holstein led to war between
Denmark and Germany, the Swedes
sympathized cordially with the Danes,
of whom they had for a long time ceased
to be in the slightest degree jealous.

190

DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

Swedish tr*. jps were landed in Fiinen,
and through the influence of the Swed-
ish government an armistice was con-
cluded at Malmo. The excitement in
favor of Denmark soon died out, and
when the war was resumed in 1849
Sweden resolutely declined to take part
in it. The outbreak of the Crimean
War greatly alarmed the Swedes, who
feared that they might in some way be
dragged into the conflict.

In 1855, having some reason to com-
plain of Russian acts of aggression on his
northern frontiers, the king of Sweden
and Norway concluded a treaty with
England and France, pledging himself
not to cede territory to Russia, and re-
ceiving from the Western powers a
promise of help in the event of his be-
ing attacked. The demands based on
this treaty were readily granted by
Russia in the peace of Paris in 1856,

A Popular Sovereign.

Charles XV., 1 859-1 872, came to the
throne after his father's death. Nearly
two years before his accession he had
been made regent in consequence of
Oscar I.'s ill-health, Charles was a man
of considerable intellectual ability and
of decidedly popular sympathies, and
during his reign the Swedish people
became enthusiastically loyal to his dy-
nasty. In 1 860 two estates of the realm
•—the peasants and the burghers — pre-
sented petitions, begging him to submit
to the diet a scheme for the reform of
the constitution.

The main provisions of the plan of-
fered in his name were that the diet
should consist of two chambers, — the
first chamber to be elected for a term of
nine years by the provincial assemblies
and by the municipal corporations of

towns not represented in these assem-
blies, the second chamber to be elected
for a term of three years by all natives
of Sweden possessing a specified prop-
erty qualification. The executive power
was to belong to the king, who was to
act under the advice of a council of
state responsible to the national repre-
sentatives. This plan, which was re-
ceived with general satisfaction, was
finally adopted by the diet in 1866, and
is still in force.

Norway Free and Independent.

Early in the reign of Charles XV.
there were serious disputes between
Sweden and Norway, and the union of
the two countries could scarcely have
been maintained but for the tact and
good sense of the king,

Charles XV. died in 1 872, and was suc-
ceeded by his brother Oscar II. Under
him Sweden has maintained good re-
lations with all foreign powers, and
political disputes in the diet have never
been serious enough to interrupt the
material progress of the nation.

The history of Norway since i8i4has
been practically that of Sweden. In
that year Charles XIII. of Sweden was
proclaimed king by the national diet
assembled at Christiania, and accepted
the constitution which declared Norway
to be a free, independent, indivisible
and inalienable state, united to Sweden.
In 1893 the eightieth anniversary of the
union of Norway and Sweden was cele
brated ; King Oscar, at a banquet spoke
strongly in support of the union, spec
ially in foreign affairs. The fisheries
have always been a source of profit to
Norway, and an international exhibition
was opened at Bergen in May, 1898,
which was largely attended.

CHAPTER XIV.

Nations of Southern Europe — Italy, Greece, Turkey and Spain.

N the 1st of January, 1806, Aus-
tria lost lier Italian possessions
by the treaty of Pressburg. The
kingdom ceased on ihfe ovei-
throw of Napoleon, 18 14, p^i^'a the Lom-
bardo- Venetian kingdoms -vi^as estab-
lished for Austria Apr?. 7, 181 5. The
legions of Austria wtlt at the service
of all the petty des;?ots in the other
parts of Italy, while: a yet larger army
of spies was at work in every corner of
the unhappy country.

The general misery provoked con-
spiracy, and revolutionary societies
sprang up everywhere. But the move-
ment had as yet no directing head.
There were risings in Southern Italy in
1820, but they were suppressed the fol-
lowing year and the leaders executed,
and numerous less important insurrec-
tions there, in the period preceding
1846, were easily put down.

Other abortive attempts were made
in Piedmont, in I/onibardy, in Modena
and the Romagna, the only result of
which was to make the ruler's hand yet
heavier on the people. Nor was there
thorough unanimity or common action
among Italian liberals. The extreme
Republicans, represented by the party
of Young Italy, were headed by Mazzini,
whose fiery eloquence and enthusiasm
transformed the vague desires of his
countrymen into a passionate hope ; but
his policy sanctioned methods from
which more sober patriots shrank.
From Geneva he led a band of refugees
to the invasion of Savoy, in 1833,
because the new king, Charles Albert,
would not enter on a war with Aus-

tria ; but this wild raid proved an utter
failure.

xllready the wise minds in Italy looked
to Saiclinia for deliverance; but the
dream of a confederacy, with perhaps
the Pope as president, was not yet dis-
pelled. Nay, it seemed about to be
realized when, in 1846, Pius IX. as-
sumed the tiara, and initiated a series
of liberal reforms. Constitutions were
granted in 1 847 by all the rulers save
Austria and Ferdinand II. of Naples;
and from the latter a constitution was
wrung in the following year.

Massacre in Milan.

The year of revolutions, 1848, opened
with a street massacre by the Austrians
in Milan, on January 2nd. In February
the French Republic was declared, and
then in Italy the party of Mazzini was
for a moment supreme. Sicily revolted
from Ferdinand, and in March Charles
Albert declared war on the Austrians,
who had been driven out of Milan and
Venice. He passed the Ticino, and de-
feated Radetsky at Goito ; but on July
25th the Austrians won the decisive
battle of Custozza, re-entered Milan,
and placed the country under martial
law.

In Naples there had been a massacre
in May, and on August 30th Messina
was bombarded. Meanwhi'.^c the Pope's
heart had failed him. His troops had
gone to the help of the Sardinians, bul
before their surrender he had declared
their advance to have been without his
leave. The Republicans, who had re-
garded his liberal measures with suspi-

!9'

192

ITAI.Y, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

VIEW OF NAPLES WITH MOUNT

cion and jealousy, now denounced him
as a traitor to the cause of Italian
freedom. On November 1 5th his wisest
minister, Count Rossi, was assassinated,
and Pius fled to Gaeta in disguise.

In the hope of obtaining some advan-
tage in the struggle, the Pope had en-
deavored to establish diplomatic rela-
•t^gns with Great Britain. These were
accepted and authorized by Parliament,
and undoubtedly had some moral effect
in strengthening the position of the
Vatican. The revolution, however, went
forward with unabated vigor, and there
was a political upheaval that astonished

vEsrvirs ix tub distance.

the thrones of Europe. All the con
servative elements that st,?nd for sta-
bility, law and order were called to
action.

A republic was set up in Rome on
February 9, 1849, under Mazzini and
two other triumvirs. The Grand Duke
Leopold had fled from Florence, but
Tuscany refused to join herself to the
republic ; yet when the sovereign she
had invited back returned, his first act,
supported by the presence of Austrian
troops, was to suppress the constitution.
In Piedmont the ultra-radicals, headed
by Rattazzi, were now in power, and a

ITAtY, GimBCE, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

193

ftresli campaign against Austria was be-
gun— this time lasting less than four
days. On March 23, Radetsky defeated
the Piedmontese at Novara. Charles
Albert gave up his throne to his son,
Victor Emanuel II., and died, broken-
hearted, at Oporto four months later.

Efforts were now made to reduce
Rome and Venice. In vain did Gari-
baldi, who had been called to the de-
fense of Rome, defeat the Neapolitans
at Palestrina and Velletri. A French
army, under General Oudinot, took the
city, after a four weeks' siege, on July
2nd. Venice, under the heroic Daniel
Manin, bravely kept her enemies at bay
until August 22nd. The petty sover-
eigns now came back — the Pope last,
in April, 1850. Rome, occupied by a
French garrison, was kept in a state of
siege for seven years, and the city never
quite recovered its freedom until 1 8yc.

Revolution a Failure.

Italy's first general effort for freedom
had ended in failure: 1848 was a year
of unfulfilled visions. But one important
gain was affected : the dream of federa-
tion was ended, and all men looked now
to the House of Savoy, save the few
idealists, like Mazzini, who afterwards
stood sternly apart from the triumphs
of compromise.

Victor Emmanuel was faithful to the
Italian cause, and persevered in the path
of reform on which his family had en-
tered. Sardinia was relieved, by the
law which gave the government power
to abolish monasteries, from the incu-
bus of an army of idle and ignorant
ecclesiastics ; a liberal co istitution was
in lorce, the press was ffee, education
was spreading, and a measure of religious
liberty was enjoyed. In 1853 the Sar-
18

dinian prime ministry passed into the
hands of Cavour, the brain, as Gari-
baldi was the arm, of the coming strug-
gle. Henceforth he inspired and guided
the national movement, until his death
in the moment of victory.

Another War.

The Sardinian troops, reorganized by
I^a Marmora, were sent under that gen-
eral to the Crimea, where they won for
themselves honor, and for their country
allies amongst the great powers. Cavour
made terms with Louis Napoleon, and
in 1859 war was declared once more
against Austria. The French and Ital-
ians won the battles of Magenta and
Solferino in June, and then the French
emperor, acting independently, agreed
to a treaty which left the Austrians in
possession of Venetia, from the Mincio
eastward. The indignation of the Pied-
montese, whose sovereign had, tinder
Cavour's agreement with Louis Napo-
leon, to give up Savoy and Nice in re-
turn for this assistance, was intense ; but
the states of Central Italy voted their
union to the kingdom of Victor Em-
manuel, and were annexed in March,
i860; and a few days after Southern
Italy revolted from Francis II., the son
of Ferdinand, the detested Bomba.

Garibaldi and his volunteers, their
expedition secretly favored by Cavour,
went to the support of the insurrection
in May, and in September entered Na-
ples. Cavour, with the consent of Louis
Napoleon (who, however, maintained
the Pope in Rome, because his own
position in France was strengthened by
his championing the head of the Cath-
olic church), now sent an army into the
papal states, which defeated the Pope's
troops at Castelfidardo, joined Garibaldi,

194

ITALY, GRE^ECE, turkey AND SPAIN.

and helped him to defeat the Neapolitan
generals on the Volturno.

In October Victor Emmanuel entered
the Abruzzi, and Garibaldi resigned his
dictatorship and retired to his island-
farm. In February, 1 86 1 , the first Italian
parliament met at Turin, and Victor Em-
manuel was proclaimed king of Italy.
But Rome and Venice were not yet
freed, and Cavour died in June of this
year. In 1862 Garibaldi raised a body
of volunteers to liberate Rome, and,
having crossed to the mainland, was de-
feated at Aspromonte ; the blame, how-
ever, fell chiefly on Rattazzi, who was
then minister, and who had sought to
follow Cavour' s policy, and to reap the
advantage of Garibaldi's expedition, but
had neglected to first come to an under-
standing with France.

Garibaldi at the Front.

The expressed sympathy of Europe
brought about the September conven-
tion of 1864, by which Louis Napoleon
agreed gradually to withdraw the French
troops on Italy's stipulation not to allow
an attack on the Pope's territory. By
the last article of the convention, the
capital was removed a step nearer Rome
— from Turin to Florence.

In 1866 the Austro- Prussian war, in
which Italy took but an inglorious part
as the ally of Prussia, added to the king-
dom the coveted territory of Venice. In
the same year the French garrison was
withdrawn from Rome, and Mazzini
demanded that the city should be cap-
tured. In 1 867 Garibaldi and his vol-
unteers gaine a victory near Rome, and
the French returned ; the volunteers
surrendered in November, and the gen-
eral was arrested. But after the fall of
the empire, in 1870, the new foreign

minister of France, Jules Favre, de-
clared the September Convention at an
end, and the king, who had only pre-
vented the democrats from moving by
arresting Mazzini, was at length free
to act as he desired.

Free Italy.

On September 20th he entered Rome,
and the emancipation of Italy was com-
pleted. The Pope retained the Vatican,
the church of Sta Maria Maggiore, the
Lateran palace, the villa of Castel Gan-
dolfo, with their precincts, and was
voted an income of ^i 50,000 out of the
revenues of the state ; yet the spiritual
sovereign bore but impatiently the loss
of his temporal power, and frequent
complaints and denunciations were di-
rected from the Vatican against the
palace on the Quirinal.

Meanwhile Italy, at last free and
united, has become one of the great
continental powers, as has been shown
in the preceding sections of this article.
It will be the hope of all who have fol-
lowed the story of her long degradation
and gallant recovery of freedom that
this rapid growth may not, like her
earlier precocious development in arts
and commerce, be bought at the after
cost of premature decay.

The later history of Italy has been
uneventful. Brigandage, rife under the
tyrannical rule of the Bourbons, and
afterwards encouraged by their emis-
saries, has been gradually suppressed,
education and public works have stead-
ily advanced, and in the south the people
have become more reconciled — at least,
less inveterately hostile — to the laws.
In January, 1878, Victor Emmanue^
died, and was succeeded by his eldest
son, Humbert I. (born 1844); and one

ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN

195

montli later Pius IX. died also, and Leo
XIII became pope. The most important
internal measure s'nce then has been the

tions so far is not great ; but the govern-
ment has been from time to time em-
barrassed by the agitation conducted by

WORLD RENOWNED CATHEDRAL OF MILAN.

wide extension of the franchise, and in
1883 the resumption of specie payment.
The popular interest in political ques-

the Irredentists, whose aim is to add to
the kingdom all those districts of Eu-
rope where the Italian speech prevails.

196

ITALY, GRBBCB, TURKEY AND SPAIN,

In 1883 the ministry denounced the
atiieme of the association, as aiming in-
directly at the downfall of the monarchy
>nd at the same time extolled the triple
lUiance (of Italy, Germany and Aus-
*rria), into which Italy, exasperated at
jhe extension of French influence in
Tunis, had entered. To this same jeal
iusy of French encroachments on the
southern Mediterranean shore may be
ittributed the erection into an Italian
colony, in. 1882, of a coaling station
'ounded the year before at Assab, on the
^ed Sea. In 1885 Massowah was occu-
pied, and in 1889 the Italian colonial
territory was amalgamated under the
name of Eritrea.

In January, 1887, a disaster to the
'^talian troops brought on a desultory
/far with Abyssinia, which ended in an
arrangement, in 1889, that placed the
latter country under Italian protection.
In 1888 Signor Depretis, who had

headed eight ministries, was succeeded
as premier by Signor Crispi. Since
then the main interest of Italian affairs
has centered in the finances, and in the
struggle to meet, out of the resources
of the country, the expenses of the
heavy armament.

On the nth of October, 1897, much
excitement was caused in Rome by a
popular demonstration against the
scheme of taxation on incomes and
personal property. The populace came
into conflict with the troops, who at
length suppressed the uprising. The
fiftieth anniversary of the Italian consti-
tution of 1848 was celebrated at Rome
in March, 1898, but during May follow-
ing there were bread riots in various
parts of the kingdom on account of the
high prices of food, and quiet was re-
stored only by the strong arm of the
military power, by which the turbulent
uprisings were suppressed.

GREECE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

HEN the century began Greece
was under the sway of Tur-
key, but the French Revolu-
tion had roused the minds of the
Greek people into activity, and they
were ashamed that a nation which
had played such a grand part in the
early civilization of mankind should
be the slaves of an illiterate and bar-
barous horde of aliens. The country
was ripe for revolt, and a secret society
was formed to make ready for a rising
of the people.

Accordingly in 1821 the war for in-
d>Srpendence broke out. The insurrec-
tion was begun by Prince Alexander
Hypsilantes, an official in the service

of Russia, who had been elected head
of the chief secret society. He crossed
the Pruth, March 6, 1821, with a few
followers, and was soon joined by sev-
eral men of great bravery at the head
of considerable troops. But the expe-
dition was badly managed, and in June,
Hypsilantes fled to Austria, having en-
tirely failed in his object. And in all
the efforts to overthrow the power of
the Turks in the northern provinces
the Greeks failed, though some men
fought very bravely.

In the Peloponnesus the insurrection
broke out also in March in several
places, and most prominent among the
first movers was Germanos, archbishop

ITALY, GREEJCE, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

197

of Patras. Everywhere the Greeks
drove the Turks before them ; they were
so successful that in January, 1822, the
independence of Greece was proclaimed.
But they soon began to quarrel among
themselves. The aspirants for honors
and rewards were numberless, and they
could not agree.

Accordingly a civil war raged in 1823
and 1824, inspired by Colocotronis, a
chief who attained great influence, and
in 1824 another civil war of short dura-
tion, called the War of the Primates.
During this period the Greek fleet was
very active, and did good service. It
was ably led by Miaonlis, a man of firm
character and great skill. And he was
well seconded by the intrepid Canaris,
whose fire ships did immense damage
to the Turkish fleet, and filled the
Turkish sailors with indescribable terror.
For the ravages of the Greek fleet the
Turks wreaked fearful vengeance on
the innocent inhabitants of the lovely
island of Chios, April, 1822, butchering
in cold blood multitudes of its peaceful
inhabitants, and carrying off" others to
the slave market. The savage atroci-
ties then perpetrated caused a thrill of
horror throughout the civilized world.

Successive Defeats.

Two years after they perpetrated simi-
lar outrages on the islands of Kasos and
Psara. The sultan now invoked the
aid of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt,
and his stepson, Ibrahim, landed on the
Peloponnesus with a band of well-dis-
ciplined Arabs in 1824. Ibrahim carried
everything before him, and the Greeks
lost nearly every place that they had
acquired. Some towns offered a strong
resistance, and especially famous is the
siege of Mesolonghi, which lasted from

27th of April, 1825 to April 22d, 1826.
Nothing could exceed the firmness and
bravery displayed by Greek men and
women during that siege; and their
glorious deeds and sad fate attracted
the 'attention of all Europe.

The interest in the Greeks, which
had been to some extent aroused by
lyord Byron and other English sympa-
thizers in 1823, now became intense,
and volunteers appeared from France
and Germany as well as from Englana
and America. I^ord Cochrane was ap-
pointed admiral of the Greek fleet, and
Sir Richard Church, generalissimo of
the land forces, but they did not pre-
vent the capture of Athens by the
Turks, June 2d, 1827. Most of the
European Governments had remained
indifferent, or had actually discouraged
the outbreak of the Greeks. Russia
had disowned Hypsilantes.

Good Fortune for Greece.

The monarchs of Europe were afraid
that the rising of the Greeks was onl)
another eruption of democratic feeling
fostered by the French Revolution, and
thought that it ought to be suppressed.
But the vast masses of the people were
now interested, and demanded from
their governments a more liberal treat-
ment of Greece. Canning inaugurated
in 1823, and now carried out this new
policy in England. An accident came
to the aid of the Greeks. The fleets o:*^
England, France, and Russia were crui-
sing about the coasts of the Pelopon-
nesus, to prevent the Turkish fleet
ravaging the Greek islands or main
land.

Winter coming on, the admirals
thought it more prudent to anchor in
the Bay of Navarino, where the Turk-

198

ITAIvY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

isli fleet lay. The Turks regarded their
approach as prompted by hostile feel-
ings and commenced firing on them,
whereupon a general engagement en-
sued, in which the Turkish fleet was
annihilated, October 20th, 1827. Short-
ly afterward, January 1 8th, 1828, Capo-
distrias, who had been in the service of
Russia, was appointed president of
Greece for seven years, the French
cleared the Morea of hostile Turks, and
Greece was practically independent.

President Assassinated

But several years had to elapse ere
affairs reached a settled condition. Ca-
7)odistrias was Russian in his ideas of
government, and, ruling with a high
hand, gave great offence to the masses
of the people; and his rule came to an
untimely end by his assassination on Oc-
tober 9th, 1 83 1. Anarchy followed, but
at length Otho of Bavaria was made
king, and the protecting powers signed
a convention by which the present
limits were definitely assigned to the
new kingdom. Henceforth Greece has
existed as a recognized independent
kingdom.

Throughout the whole of the war of
independence in Greece, the people be-
haved with great bravery and self-sacri-
fice. They showed a steady adherence
to the idea of liberty. They were some-
times savage in their conduct to the
Turks, and barbarities occurred which
stain their history. Yet on the whole
the historian has much to praise and
little to blame in the great mass, espe-
cially of the agricultural population.
But no single man arose during the
period capable of being in all respects
a worthy leader.

Nor can this be wondered at. All

the men who took a prominent part in
the movements had received thei, ^rain-
ing in schools where constitutionalism
was the last doctrine that was likely to be
impressed on them. Several of them
had been in the service of Russia, and
had full faith only in arbitrary power.
Many of them were accustomed to
double dealing, ambitious and avari-
cious. Some of them had been brought
up at the court of Ali Pasha of Jannina,
and had become familiar with savage
acts of reckless despotism. Others had
been and indeed remained during the
continuance of the war, chiefs, having
but little respect for human life, and
habituated to scenes of cruelty and
plunder. Some of them also came from
the Mainotes, who owed their independ-
ence to the habitual use of arms, and
who were not troubled by many scru-
ples.

Free Only in Name.

It could not be expected that such men
would act with great mercy or prudence
in dealing with Turks who had butch-
ered or enslaved their kinsmen and
kinswomen for generations. Even
amongst the foreigners who volunteered
to aid the Greeks, few if any were found
of supreme ability, and after the king-
dom was established the Greeks were
unfortunate in the strangers who came
to direct them. Otho had been brought
up in a despotic court, and knew no
other method of ruling. He brought
along with him Bavarians, to whom
he entrusted the entire power, and the
Greeks had the mortification of know-
ing that, though their kingdom was
independent, no Greek had a chance
of being elevated to any ministerial
office of importance.

Accordingly a revolution broke ^ut

ITAI,Y, GRKBCK, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

199

in 1843; the Bavarians were dismissed,
and Otho agreed to rule through re-
sponsible ministers and a representa-
tive assembly. But he failed to fulfill
his promise. Discontent reached its
height in 1862, when another revolu-
tion broke out and Otho had to leave
Greece. The great mass of the people
longed for a constitutional monarchy,
and gave a striking proof of this by
electing Prince Alfred king of Greece.
This choice was determined by univer-
sal suffrage, and out of 241,202 Greek
citizens who voted 230,016 recorded
their votes in favor of the English
prince. The vote meant simply that
the Greek people were tired of uncon-
stitutional princes, and hoped that they
would end their troubles if they had a
prince accustomed to see parliamentary
government respected and enforced.

Threefold Alliance.

The three protecting powers, — Eng-
land, France, and Russia, — had how-
ever bound themselves to allow no one
related to their own ruling families to
become king of Greece. When the
Greek people received this news, they
begged England to name a king, and
after several refusals England found one
in Prince William of Schleswig-Hol-
stein, son of the king of Denmark. The
Greek people accepted him, and in 1863
he became king with the name of
George I. Britain added the Ionian
islands to his kingdom.

In 1875 the ministry gave great of-
fence to the Greek people by its uncon-
stitutional procedure, but the king per-
sisted in standing by it. The people,
however, persevered in the use of legi-
timate means to oust the ministry ; the
king at last prudently yielded; and thus

a revolution was prevented. The effort
of the Greeks to extend their boundaries
is the last phase of their history, and is
still in progress. In 1853 when the
Crimean war broke out, the Greeks
sided with the Russians, and in 1854
they made inroads into Thessaly and
Epirus, but English and French troops
landed at the Piraeus, and forcibly put
an end to the Russian alliance and to
Greek ideas of acquiring additional ter-
ritory. In 1866 to 1869 the Cretans
struggled bravely but unsuccessfully to
throw off the Turkish yoke and become
a part of the Greek kingdom.

Desperate Battles.

The most important events of recent
date in Greek history are connected
with the war between Greece and Tur-
key of 1897, which was declared by
Turkey on April 17th. It was claimed
by Turkey that the Greeks were violat-
ing agreements respecting the bounda-
ries of territory, and also concerning
liberties guaranteed to the inhabitants
of Crete.

Desperate battles occurred during
April of 1897, in most of which the
Turkish arms were victorious. In May
the mediation of the European Powers
was accepted and an armistice was pro-
posed. Cretan autonomy was agreed to
by Greece, but the Turkish conditions
for ending the war were $50,000,000 in-
demnity, the annexation of Thessaly,
and several other oppressive demands.}
Meanwhile a desperate battle at Domoko
resulted in the slaughter of nearly 3,000}'
Turks, but the Greek army was finally
forced to retreat, the result being an-
other attempt to end the war.

A collective note of the Powers was
sent tp Turkey proposing conditions ol

200

ITALY, GREECE. TURKEY AND SPAIN.

peace. Negotiations were carried on at
Constantinople, and the Powers resisted
the demands of the Porte as to the an-
nexation of Thessaly and the war in-
demnity. After much sparring on both
sides, Turkey was compelled to submit

to the principal demands of the Powers
and the war was terminated. The treaty
of peace was signed at Constantinople
in December, 1897. The final payment
of the war indemnity was made July 10,
1898, by the Powers interested.

(HFSb

TURKEY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

[B Turkish power was at a very
]l low ebb at the opening of the
nineteenth century, and many
of the subject nations, both Christian
and Mohammedan, sought to throw off
the yoke of the sultan and establish
their independence. In 1806 Servia
revolted under the leadership of Czerni
George. It was conquered in 1813, but
again revolted in 18 15, under Milosh
Obrenowitz. Montenegro also rebelled,
and until the Crimean war these pro-
vinces enjoyed a state of quasi inde-
pendence. Egypt was also strongly dis-
affected. In 1809 a war broke out
with Russia, which resulted in a further
loss of Turkish territory. It was closed
by the treaty of Bucharest, by which
the sultan ceded to Russia Bessarabia,
Ismail and Kilia, one-third of Moldavia,
and fortresses of Chotzim and Bender.

In 1807 Selim III. died, and was suc-
ceeded by Mahmoud II., under whom
the Turkish power continued to decline.
The population of the Turkish empire
in Europe was about 14,000,000, of
wliom scarcely 2,000,000 were Turks.
The remainder were Christians, consist-
ing principally of the four distinct races
inhabiting European Turkey, viz. : the
Sclavonians, occupying Bulgaria, Servia,
Bosnia, Herzegovina and Montenegro ;
the Roumanians, occupying Moldavia
and Wallachia; the Albanians, dwelling
ill ancient Epirus, and the Greeks.

The Greeks had never willingly ac-
cepted the rule of Turkey, and some
portions of them had never submitted
to the porte, but had maintained a wild
brigandish existence in their moun-
tains. Though the Greeks were at-
tached to Russia by the strong ties of a
common religion, that power refused
to do anything for their freedom, and
Alexander I. met their appeal for aid
against their Turkish oppressors with
the cold command : " I^et the Greek
rebels obey their lawful sovereign."

In spite of this discouragement the
Greeks determined to throw off the
Turkish yoke, and in March, 1821, the
first blow was struck. The people of
the peninsula and the islands rose in a
general revolt. When the news of the
revolution was received at Constantino-
ple a general massacre of the Greek in-
habitants of the capital ensued. The
war went on through the year 1821, the
patriot forces winning several important
successes, among which was the capture
of the Turkish capital of the Morea. In
January, 1822, a national congress met
at Epidaurus, proclaimed the independ-
ence of Greece, and adopted a provis-
ional constitution.

In the spring of the same year the
Turks made a descent upon Scio, mas-
sacred 40,000 of the inhabitants, and
carried away thousands to the slave
markets of Smyrna and Constantinople,

ITALY, GREECE. TURKEY AND SPAIN.

201

In 1823 the admiration and sympathy
of all Europe was aroused by the heroic
death of Marco Bozzaris, who, with a
small band of Suliote patriots, attacked
the Turkish camp and fell in the arms
of victory.

The Euiopean governments looked

fore he could accomplish much for the
cause he had adopted.

Unable to conquer Greece, the sultan
summoned Mehemet Ali, the Viceroy
of Egypt, wh<7 enjoyed a state of actual
independence, to complete the task.
This vigorous leader spread terror and

GREAT NAVAIv BATTLE OF NAVARINO.

coldly upon the gallant struggle, but
the people remembered the glories of
ancient Greece, and supplies of money,
arms, and men were sent to the patriots.
Foremost among those who devoted
their fortunes and talents to the free-
dom of Greece was Lord Byron. He
died at Missolonghi in April, 1824, be-

desolation throughout Hellas. Misso-
longhi was taken after a heioic defence,
and Athens was captured in 1825. The
Egyptian forces had orders to make a
desolation of Greece, and to carry off
the people into slavery.

Alexander I. of Russia fortunately
died at this juncture, and the Czsr

202

ITALY, GRKKCE, TURKEY AND SPAIN".

Nicholas, his successor, adopted a dif-
ferent policy. Moved either by his
sympathy with his co-religionists or by
his anxiety to weaken Turkey, he re-
solved to intervene in behalf of the
Greeks, and was joined by France and
England, who were anxious to impose
a check upon the Egyptian viceroy.
These powers sent a strong combined
leet to the Mediterranean. On the 20th
jf October, 1827, this fleet, under the
command of the English Admiral Cod-
rington, accidentally encountered the
Turkish and Egyptian fleet in the Bay
of Navarino. A battle ensued, which
resulted in the destruction of the Mo-
hammedan fleet.

Crete and Syria.

This success revived the hopes of the
Greeks, and the next year Russia de-
clared war against Turkey ; and the
sultan, in order to save his Danubian
provinces, was obliged to sign the treaty
of Adrianople, by which he acknowl-
edged the independence of Greece.

Mehemet Ali was given the sover-
eignty of Crete by the sultan for his
services in the Greek revolution. Not
satisfied with this acquisition, he sent
his son Ibrahim Pasha, an able com-
mander, in 1 83 1, to conquer Syria.
That country was overrun by the
Egyptian forces, who also advanced to-
wards Asia Minor. Their progress was
at length stayed by the intervention of
Russia, England, and France, whose
forces defeated Ibrahim at Nisi bis on
the Euphrates. A few days after this
battle Sultan Mahmoud died. France
was anxious that Mehemet Ali should
succeed him, but England and Rus-
sia drove him out of Acre and Syria,
and secured the Turkish throne for

Abdul Medjid, the young son of Mah-
moud.

In 1840 the treaty of Eondon was
signed. Crete and Syria were restored
to the Porte, and Mehemet Ali was
limited to Egypt. For many years after
this Sir Stratford Canning, afterwards
Eord Stratford de Redcliffe, the Eng-
lish Ambassador at Constantinople,
controlled the counsels of the Porte.
By the treaty of London, Egypt be-
came to a certain extent an indepen-
dent State, though owning a nominal
allegiance to the sultan

The Crimean War.

In 185 1 began the troubles which re-
sulted in the Crimean War, which we
have related elsewhere. The treaty of
Paris, in 1856, which brought this war
to a close, admitted Turkey to the Eu-
ropean system of states, and guaranteed
the integrity of her dominions. Servia
was given a native prince, and was
placed under the protection of the great
powers, though she retained a nominal
allegiance to the sultan. Moldavia and
Wallachia, a few years later, were erec-
ted into a similarly independent state
under the name of Roumania,

In 1 86 1 Abdul Medjid died, and was
succeeded by Abdul Aziz, In 1868 a
formidable insurrection broke out in
the island of Crete or Candia. It aroused
great sympathy among the European
people, and came near producing a war
between Greece and Turkey, but was
quelled during the following year by
the Turks.

Mehemet Ali was succeeded as Vice-
roy of Egypt by his son Ibrahim Pasha,
under whose vigorous rule Egypt made
great progress. He died in 1848, and
Abbas Pasha became viceroy, and was

1TAL1. GRBECK, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

203

in "his turn succeeded by Ismail Pasha,
the reigning khedive.

In 1867 the Sultan Abdul Aziz visited
Paris and London and the principal
cities of Europe. This was the first
time a Turkish sovereign ever made a
peaceful journey beyond the limits of
his own empire.

The result of the war between France
and Germany, in 1 870-7 1 , affected Tur-
key in a most important respect. The
treaty of Paris, which closed the Cri-
mean War, placed a restriction upon
the aggressive power of Russia by neu-
tralizing the Black Sea. The reverses
of France in her contest with Germany
so weakened her that she was unable to
sustain England in upholding the treaty
of Paris. Russia promptly took advan-
tage of this to demand of the powers a
modification of those articles of the
treaty which prevented her from forti-
fying her ports or maintaining an armed
fleet in the Black Sea.

A New Treaty.

England warmly opposed the demand,
but France was in no condition to do
so, and Germany and the Austro-Hun-
garian monarchy gave their moral sup-
port to the Russian demand, and avowed
their intention not to co-operate with
Englaiid in any armed resistance to it.
The result was that a conference of the
representatives of the powers was held
in London, and on the 13th of February,
1 87 1, a treaty was signed by them abro-
gating the articles of the treaty of Paris
as to the navigation of the Black Sea
and the right of Russia to fortify her
ports. The protection afforded to Tur-
key by the great powers was thus taken
from her.

In 1873 t^^ sultan's authority over

Egypt was further weakened by the
concessions which made the khedive
almost an independent sovereign, and
which we have related in the history of
Egypt.

In the summer of 1875 an insurrec-
tion broke out in Herzegovina. The
misrule and oppression of the Turkish
government had come to be insupport-
able, and the inhabitants rose in rebel
lion and repulsed the attacks of the Tur
kish troops. Servia, Bosnia, Montene-
gro and Bulgaria, were profoundly ex-
cited by these events, and were open in
their sympathy with their struggling
Christian brethren in Herzegovina.
Substantial aid was also rendered by
the people of those countries, the gov-
ernments of which for a time remained
neutral.

Turkey Bankrupt.

In October, 1875, Turkey failed to
meet the interest on her national debt,
the principal of which amounted to over
^900,000,000. A decree was issued by
the porte promising speedy payment of
half the interest and making provision,
for the payment of the other half The
promise was not fulfilled, and in July,
1 876, the porte was compelled to declare
its insolvency by stating that all pay-
ments on account of the national debt,
must cease until the close of the war with
its revolted provinces. As nearly every
dollar of this debt was due to citizens of
Western Europe, principally English
subjects, the failure of the Turks to
meet their obligations greatly weakened
the friendship which, up to this time,
the English people had felt for them.

On the 30th of May, 1876, the Sultan
Abdul Aziz, to whose mismanage.ncnt
many of the troubles of the countr ,

204

1TAI.Y, GRBKCE, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

were due, was forcibly deposed, and
placed in confinement in one of the
palaces at Constantinople. On the 4th
of June he was found dead in his cham-
ber, having committed suicide.

Murad (or Amurath) V., the son of
Abdul Medjid, was proclaimed sultan
in the place of his uncle. His reign
was a brief one. He proved so hope-
lessly imbecile that, on the 3TSt of Au-
gust, 1876, he was in his turn deposed,
and was succeeded by his brother Abdul
Hamid II.

Massacre of Christians.

In the meantime the war with Herze-
govina had been carried on. In Octo-
ber, 1875, the sultan declared that the
taxes which had been one cause of the
revolt, should be lowered from their ex-
cessive rate to ten per cent., that arrears
of taxes should be abandoned, and that
the Christians should be granted a rep-
resentation in the state councils. The
Christians had learned from long expe-
rience to distrust these promises, and
the war went on. In October, 1875,
some Christians who had come back to
their homes from Dalmatia were massa-
cred by the Turks, and the struggle
became more bitter in consequence of
this act. Servia and Montenegro se-
cretly gave aid to the rebels, and the
Prince of Servia declared in a speech to
the national assembly that it was impos-
sible for Servia to be indifferent to the
fate of the Herzegovines.

It was feared by the European powers
that the troubles in Turkey might be
the means of embroiling other coun-
tries in the war, and near the close of
the year 1875, Germany, Austria, and
Russia made a combined effort to secure
peace. Austria, whose territory ad-

joined the Turkish dominions, was
especially fearful that the revolt would
extend across her border and involve
her Sclavonic possessions. A joint
note was drawn up in the name of the
three powers by Count Andrassy, the
Austrian Prime Minister. This note
proposed to the sultan to grant certain
reforms to his Christain subjects. These
were the establishment of complete re-
ligious liberty ; the abolition of the
system of farming out the taxes ; the
application of the revenue arising from
indirect taxation in Bosnia and Herze-
govina to the general purposes of the
Ottoman government, and the employ-
ment of the results of the direct taxa-
tion in the improvement and govern-
ment of those provinces.

Turkey Makes Promises.

The Porte accepted all the reforms
but the disposition of the taxes, at the
same time promising to set aside a cer-
tain sum from the national treasury for
the local wants of Bosnia and Herze-
govina. The insurgents were not will-
ing to trust the pledges of the Porte,
however, and the war went on. On the
30th of March, 1876, an armistice was
concluded, and an effort was made by
an agent of the Austrian government
to effect a settlement. The terms de-
manded by the insurgents were so ex-
travagant, however, that Austria re-
fused to consider them.

The Andrassy note having failed, a
note was drawn up at Berlin on the
I ith of May, 1876, by the Prime Min-
isters of Germany, Austria, and Russia,
and forwarded to Constantinople. It
stated peremptorily that as the sultan
had given the powers a pledge to exe-
cute the reforms proposed by them, he

ITALY, GREECE. TURKEY AND SPAIN.

205

had also given them a moral right to
insist that he should fulfill his promise.
The note then demanded an armistice
of two months, and closed with a threat
that if the sultan failed to comply with
the demands of the powers, they might
find it necessary to compel him to do so.

The note substantially supported the
demands of the Christians of Herze-
govina with respect to taxation and the
restoration of their property, etc. France
and Italy agreed to support the note,
but England declined to do so.

The war had gone on in the mean-
time, and Bulgaria had become to some
extent involved in it. Early in May
the Turkish officials in Bulgaria deter-
mined to put a stop to the troubles in
that province by the wholesale exter-
mination of the Bulgarian Christians.
A systematic plan was arranged for this
ourpose, and at the appointed time the
Christians were attacked in their vil-
lages by the Turks. Many hundreds
were massacred in cold blood, including
people of all ages and both sexes ; women
were outraged, property carried off or
destroyed, and villages burned.

Great Indignation.

The news of the massacre sent a thrill
of horror and indignation throughout
Europe, and the Turks were denounced
in unmeasured terms. In England,
which country had until now given its
moral support to Turkey, the outburst
of indignation was intense, and the
popular feeling was so outspoken that
the government was compelled to pause
in its support of the sultan and act more
in sympathy with the other European
powers.

An immediate result of the massacres
was the active participation of Servia

' in the war. In July, 1876, both Servia
i and Montenegro declared war against
I Turkey. The Servian army attempted
to invade Bulgaria, but was so unsuc-
cessful in its efforts that on the 241-'
of August Prince Milan accepted
the offer of England to mediate between
him and the sultan. Montenegro had
been generally successful in her efforts,
but, in view of the action of Servia, con-
sented to treat for peace. On the ist.
of September England proposed an ar-
mistice of a month between the bellige-
rents.

War Resumed.

The sultan refused to grant this, but
declared himself willing to make peace
on condition that Prince Milan shoul(?
come to Constantinople and do homage
to him, that Turkish garrisons should
be placed in four of the Servian for-
tresses, that Servia should pay an in-
demnity, and that the porte should be
allowed to construct and work a rail-
road through Servian territory. The
powers refused to allow these terms to
be discussed. Great Britain now pro-
posed as a basis of negotiation that Bos-
nia and Bulgaria should be given local
self-government without being freed
from the dependence upon the porte.
Prince Milan refused to accept this pro-
posal, and the war was resumed. The
Turkish armies now prepared to invade
the territory of Servia, but were checked
by the interposition of Russia.

Up to this time the action of <-he Rus-
sian government had been entirely con-
servative, being confined to its partici-
pation in the preparation of the diplo-
matic notes addressed to Turkey. Now
large numbers of Russian officers and
soldiers entered the Servian army with

206

ITALY, GREECE. TURKEY AND SPAIN.

the consent and approval of the czar.
They enabled the Servians to hold out
against the Turks until the 31st of Oc-
tober, when the fortified city of Alex-
inatz was captured by the latter. This
success placed Servia practically at the
mercy of Turkey. In the meantime
orders had been sent to the Russian am-
bassador at London to inform the British
government that it was the opinion of
the czar that force should be used to
stop the war and put an end to Turkish
misrule.

Plan of Reform.

lyord Derby stated that England was
prepared to unite with Russia in bring-
ing about an armistice of not less than a
month, but would not support an armed
'ntervention in Turkish affairs. At this
juncture Turkey, to the surprise of all
the powers, suddenly offered an armis-
tice for six months, and announced a
scheme of reform for the whole empire.
England, Austria and France favored
the armistice, but Russia declared that
she could not ask Servia to accept so
long a truce since the principality could
not keep its army on a war footing for
so long a time ; and this view of the
case was supported by Italy.

Russia demanded a truce of four or
six weeks. The Turkish forces were
pressing the siege of Alexinatz with en-
ergy, and it was apparent that that place
could not hold out much longer. Gen-
"*'«^\ Il^Tiatieff, the Russian ambassador
at Constantinople, was therefore ordered
to demand of the porte an acceptance
within forty-eight hours of the armistice
proposed by Russia. The demand was
made on the 31st of October, and on
the same day Alexinatz was captured by
the Turks. The Russian demand was

granted b)^ the porte, and the armistice
was proclaimed.

Although determined to support Ser-
via against Turkey, Russia was anxious
to maintain friendly relations with the
other European powers. On the 2d of
November Lord Adolphus Loftus, the
English ambassador, had an interview
with the czar at Livadia. The czar
"pledged his sacred word and honor''
that he had no intention of acquiring
Constantinople, and that if necessity
compelled him to occupy a portion of
Bulgaria it would only be provisionally,
and until the safety of the Christian
population was assured.

A British Threat.

These assurances gave great satisfac-
tion to the English government, which
now assumed the initiative in proposing
a general conference of the representa-
tives of the great powers of Europe to
meet at Constantinople. On the 4th of
November the Marquis of Salisbury was
appointed the English representative.
The proposal was accepted, but all the
powers did not send special representa-
tives. Germany, Russia and Italy con-
sidered their ambassadors at Constanti-
nople sufficient ; but Austria and France
followed the example of England, and
sent special representatives to assist
their resident ambassadors.

Before the conference assembled the
Earl of Beaconsfield (Disraeli), the
English premier, delivered a speech
sharply criticising the Russian attitude,
and closed it with significant words :
"While the policy of England is peace,
no country is so well prepared for war."
The next day, November 9th, the czar,
in an address to the nobles and com-
munal council of Moscow, said : "I

ITALY, GRBECB, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

207

hope this conference will bring peace ;
should this, however, not be achieved,
and should I see that we cannot attain
such guarantees as are necessary for
carrying out what we have a right to
demand of the Porte, I am firmly deter-
mined to act independently." These
words were generally regarded as a re-
ply to Lord Beaconsfield's threat, and
caused considerable excitement in Eu-
rope, as they implied a possibility of
war between Russia and England.

Lord Salisbury reached Constantino-
ple on the 5th of December. On his
journey from London he had visited
Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and Rome, and
had ascertained the views of those gov-
ernments with respect to the Eastern
question. Immediately upon reaching
Constantinople he entered into commu-
nication with the porte and with the
foreign ambassadors and representa-
tives. He was encouraged by this in-
tercourse to believe that the conference
would result in a satisfactory settle-
ment of the troubles. Turkey seemed
willing to accept a fair proposition of
settlement, and the Russian ambassador
was especially cordial in co-operating
with Lord Salisbury.

Government Revolutionized.

Before the conference assembled, a
very decided change took place in the
policy of Turkey. On the 22d of
December Midhat Pasha was made
grand vizier. The true meaning of
this appointment was that Turkey had
resolved to take her affairs into her
own hands and to refuse to submit to
the dictation of the European powers.
On the 23d the Porte proclaimed the
new constitution of the Turkish em-
pire which had been prepared by Mid-

hat Pasha. This constitution entirely
revolutionized the Turkish government.
It provided for a parliament elected by
the people, and made the sultan a con-
stitutional instead of an arbitrary sov-
ereign. The government was to be
administered by Ministers responsible
to Parliament, which body was to enact
the laws necessary for the pacification
and government of the empire.

Failure of Conference.

The conference met on the 23d of
December, the very day of the promul-
gation of the constitution. On the 28th
of December it was resolved to extend
the armistice to March i, 1877. The
proclamation of the constitution seemed
to cut the entire ground from under the
feet of the conference. The representa-
tive of the porte maintained that further
deliberation was unnecessary, since the
constitution was a sufficient answer tc
the powers. Nevertheless the ses
sions were continued, but without ac
complishing anything. The confer-
enre demanded that the reforms in the
Turkish empire should be executed by
an international commission, having at
it3 command a special military force,
composed partly of Europeans and partly
of Turks, but Turkey refused to accept
the demand, and it was abandoned.

Though Turkey was willing to pledge
herself for the execution of the reforms,
she steadily refused every material guar-
antee for the execution of this pledge
suggested to her. The conference then
reduced its demands to insisting that
the Governors of Bosnia and Bulgaria
should be appointed with the consent 01
tlie powers, and that the powers should
be allowed to form an international
conmiission, which should, however,

308

ITAI,Y, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

have no military means of executing its
decrees. On the i8th of January, 1877,
the porte firmly rejected these demands,
and the conference came to an inglori-
ous end.

During the sessions of the conference
Roumania became alarmed at the terms
of the constitution, the first article of
which declared that the Ottoman em-
pire, including the privileged provinces,
forms an indivisible unity from which
no portion can ever, on any ground, be
detached, while the seventh article gives
to the sultan the right of investiture of
the rulers of the privileged provinces.
On the 5th of January, 1877, the Rou-
manian senate passed a resolution de-
claring that the rights of the princi-
pality should remain intact, and calling
upon the government to maintain them
in a manner worthy of the state. The
excitement in Roumania was so great
that in a few days the porte officially
declared that the constitution was purely
internal, and did not affect the rights of
a principality which were guaranteed by
international treaties.

A Nation Without Friends.

The obstinacy of Turkey in refusing
the demands of the powers lost her the
few friends she had left in Europe.
The cause of this obstinacy was the
Vizier Midhat Pasha, who, losing sight
of the fact that the Turkish empire
owed its existence in Europe entirely
to the mutual jealousy of the great
powers, haughtily refused to allow any
interference with its affairs. His impe-
rious will soon rendered him obnox-
ious to the sultan, who grew restless
under the control of the man who had
already deposed two sultans within a
year, and who would not hesitate to

depose another should it suit his pur-
pose.

Accordingly on the 5th of February,
1877, Midhat Pasha was removed from
his office of vizier and ordered to quit
Constantinople. He was succeeded by
Edhem Pasha, who had served as one
of the members of the conference, and
who had distinguished himself by his
bitter opposition to all the proposals of
the foreign representatives.

Efforts for Peace.

Edhem Pasha at once devoted himself
to the task of making peace with the
rebellious principalities. He opened
negotiations with Servia, and by the
last of February concluded a treaty of
peace with that principality. By the
terms of the treaty the Servians were to
retain their fortresses, were to salute
the Turkish flag, and were to prevent
armed bands from crossing the frontier.
The Turkish troops, on their part, were
to evacuate the positions held on Ser-
vian territory. The treaty was ratified
on the 3d of March, and a week later
the Turkish forces withdrew from Ser-
via, relinquishing Alexinatz and Saits-
char to the Servians.

Negotiations had been opened with
Montenegro at the same time that those
with Servia were begun, but they proved
more protracted and troublesome. Prince
Nicholas at first demanded that the
negotiations should be conducted at
Vienna ; but the Porte refused this, and
the prince sent a delegation to Constan-
tinople. The armistice was extended
to the 13th of April. The Montenegrin
demands were, briefly, the cession of
Nicsics, which had been besieged by
their forces for several months, the ces-
sion of a seaport, and such a rectifica-

ITAI.Y, GREKCE. TURKEY AND SPAIN.

209

tion of their frontier as would increase
their territory a'jout one-half its present
extent.

As the Montenegrins held actual
possession of most of the territory
demanded by them, they had the ad-
vantage of the Porte. The latter refused
to grant any extension of territory, and
towards the close of March Prince
Nicholas instructed his representatives
to abate their demands somewhat, but
to insist upon the cession of Nicsics.
On the loth of April the Turkish par-
liament, to which the matter was re-
ferred, rejected the demands of Monte-
negro, and the next day the representa-
tives of that principaiity were informed
of this decision, and were told that the
armistice would not be renewed. Two
days later the Montenegrin delegates
set out for home, going by way of
Odessa- in order to have an interview
with the czar and the Russian com-
mander.

Trying to Gain Time.

Russia had by this time fully deter-
mined to take part in the war, but being
as yet unprepared, endeavored by skillful
diplomacy to gain time. On the 31st of
January Prince GortschakofF addressed
to the Russian representatives at the
courts of the powers concerned in the
treaty of Paris a circular, in which he
related the diplomatic efforts that had
oeen ni:ide to secure the pacification of
Turkey, and stated that the czar, before
determining upon a course for the future,
wished to know what course would be
determined upon by the other powers.
On the 9th of March Turkey met this
circular by one of her own addressed to
the guaranteeing powers, stating that

' the refnrtaqs Droposed bv the conference
14

and accepted by the imperial govern-
ment are already being applied."

On the 19th of March the Turkish
parliament was formally opened with
imposing ceremonies and renewed prom-
ises of reform. The great powers,
however, were suspicious of Turkey's
promises, and were determined to de-
mand further guarantees. Accordingly
the Russian, French, German, Austrian
and Italian ambassadors at London held
several conferences with lyord Derby,
the British foreign minister, the result
of which was the signing, on the 31st of
March, of a protocol by them in behalf
of their respective governments.

Turkish Government Watched.

This document declared that '^the
powers proposed to watch carefully, by
means of their representatives at Con-
stantinople and their local agents, the
manner in which the promises of the
Ottoman government are carried into
effect; ' ' and in case these promises were
not faithfully carried out, the powers
reserved the right of common action
"to secure the well-being of the Chris-
tian population and the interests of the
general peace." Before signing this
document Count SchouvalofF, the Rus-
sian ambassador, made a declaration to
the effect that if the porte showed itself
ready to disarm, it should send a special
envoy to St. Petersburg to treat for a
mutual disarmament. I/Ord Derby, on
behalf of Great Britain, declared that if
a reciprocal disarmament and peace did
not result, the protocol was to be re-
garded as null and void.

The answer of the porte to the pro-
tocol was a defiant circular addressed to
its representatives abroad, in which,
while it did not entirely reject the pro-

2i0

ITAI.Y, GREKCK, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

tocol, it warmly resented the threat of
foreign intervention in the internal af-
fairs of Turkey, repelled Count Schou-
valofF's suggestion of intervention, and
declined to send a special envoy to St,
Petersburg. The circular was dated
the loth of April. When the Turkish
ambassador in lyondon delivered this
circular to Lord Derby on the 12th of
April, the British foreign minister
expressed to him his deep regret at
the course Turkey had seen fit to pur-
sue, and said he could not see what
further steps England could take to
avert the war, which now seemed in-
evitable.

Every effort for peace having failed
through the obstinacy of the porte,
Russia declared war against Turkey on
the 24th of April, 1877, an account of
which is given elsewhere.

In 1897 the whole civilized world was
shocked by Turkish atrocities in Arme-
nia. The slaughter of 40,000 Armenian
Christians, if not by direct orders from
the Turkish government, yet certainly
with permission from those who could
have put a stop to these inhuman out-

rages, forms one of the most revolting
pages of history. England and America
were aroused by these bloody atrocities,
which were considered to be quite in
keeping with the Turkish character and
methods, and vigorous protests were
made, both in public meetings and
through the newspaper press.

Turkey disavowed responsibility as
far as possible for these wholesale mur-
ders, which was only to be expected. It
was an outbreak of Mohammedan fanati-
cism, and it was felt that our government
would be justified in taking the strongest
measures for the protection of American
missionaries and their families. Large
sums of money were raised in England
and this country for the relief of the
sufferers. A great public meeting was
held in Liverpool, which was presided
over by Mr. Gladstone, who denounced
with all his burning eloquence the mur-
ders committed by barbarous Turkey.
After the crime was ended public indig-
nation became quiet, and Turkey had
accomplished her object without being
called to a solemn account by othei
nations.

SPAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

"PON the return of peace, in 18 15,
after the Napoleonic wars, Fer-
dinand VII. was restored to
the throne of his fathers.
He at once re-established the Inquisi-
tion and the convents which had been
suppressed by the French. Tyranny
was restored in its most odious form,
and the Spanish people found that all
their struggles against Napoleon had
ended in the loss of their freedom.

The Spanish colonies in America,
encouiaged by the example of the United

States, had renounced their allegiance
to Spain in 18 10, upon the fall of Fer-
dinand, and had proclaimed their inde, •
pendence. Upon his return to his thron.2
Ferdinand set to work to recover these
colonies. He made great exertions and
spent large sums to reconquer them, but
in the end failed, and the dominion of
Spain on the American continent came
to an end. The struggle with the colo-
nies exhausted the Spanish treasury and
left the army unpaid and half mutinous
and the nation discontented.

ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

211

The result was a revolution in 1820,
wliich compelled Ferdinand to abolish
the Inquisition and the convents, and
restore the liberal constitution of 18 12.
The Holy Alliance now intervened, and
demanded the abolition of this constitu-
tion and the restoration of absolutism.
The cortes refused to comply with this

incline him to a more liberal course, but
he turned a deaf ear to them and pun-
ished the liberal leaders that fell into his
power with savage cruelty. So great
was the discontent of the Spanish
people that Ferdinand was only upheld
on his throne by the French troops,
who remained in Spain for seven years.

THE ESCURIAL— THE PALACE
demand, and Spain was invaded in 1823
by a French army under the Duke of
Angouleme. The liberals were defeated
in every quarter, and Cadiz, their last
stronghold, was taken in 1823. Ferdi-
nand VII. was restored to his absolute
rule, and proceeded to take vengeance
upon his enemies.

The French generals endeavored to

OF THE KINGS OF SPAIN.

In 1833 Ferdinand died, leaving tw
daughters, the elder of whom was but
three years old. In September, 1830.
he had issued a pragmatic sanction,
which annulled the law excluding
women from the Spanish throne. Upon
his death his brother, Don Carlos, pro-
duced a paper which he claimed was
signed by Ferdinand, which revoked

212

ITAl,Y, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

the pragmatic sanction, and which Don i
Carlos offered in support of his own
claim to the crown.

Spain was at once divided between
two parties — the liberals, who supported
the regency of the queen-mother, Chris-

na of Naples, and the Carlists, or par-
tisans of Don Carlos. England and
France favored the former, but the pope
and the northern powers sustained Don
Carlos. A civil war ensued, and the
liberals finally triumphed, and procured
the acknowledgment of the young queen
Isabella II. Don Carlos, however, con-

.nued the war until 1840, when he was

Anally defeated and forced to abandon

he struggle.

Royal Marriages.

A considerable party desired that the
• oung queen should marry her cousin,
he Count of Montemolin, the son and
heir of Don Carlos, a union which would
have united all the claims to the crown,
and have restored peace to Spain. France
and England, however, opposed this
union, and Louis Philippe resolved to
make Queen Isabella's marriage the
means of strengthening his dynasty.
He succeeded in inducing her to marry
her cousin, Don Francisco of Assis, who
was little better than an idiot, and at the
same time married his youngest son, the
Duke of Montpensier, to the Princess
Maria Louisa, the sister of Queen Isa-
bella, and who, from her more vigorous
health, seemed likely to outlive her sis-
, ter. This cunning scheme, so character-
istic of the selfish king of the French,
resulted in more injury than benefit to
the Orleans monarchy.

In 1843 Queen Isabella was declared
of age, and from this time Spain was
governed as a constitutional state. The

queen, who was a woman of notoriously
evil life, took but little part in the gov-
ernment, which was administered prin-
cipally by her favorites and a succession
of popular generals. The result was
that the kingdom was almost constantly
in a state of civil war. In 1868 Gonzales
Bravo became prime minister. He
caused the arrest and banishment of
seven of the leading generals of the
army, and also of the Duke and Duch-
ess of Montpensier, the latter of whom
the reader will remember was the sister
of the queen. The banished generals
each had adherents in the army, and
a revolution at once broke out. The
queen's troops were defeated, and she
herself was driven out of Spain. She
took refuge in France. The Bourbon
dynasty was declared at an end in Spain
and a provisional government was set
up in Madrid, with Marshal Serrano
one of the banished generals, at its head.

Continued Dissensions.

The unhappy kingdom was once mor
divided as to the form of government h
should adopt. A small, cultivated class
wished to set up a republic, but the grea,
body of the nation desired a constitu
tional monarchy. Don Carlos, a grand-
son of the queen's uncle of the same
name, proclaimed himself king as
Charles VII., and was supported by
a considerable party. In June, 1870
Queen Isabella abdicated her crown in
favor of her son, the Prince of Asturias,
then eleven years old, and his claims
were supported by the French govern-
ment, which hoped through him to
establish its influence in Spain. The
Spanish nation, however, refused to
accept him. The crown was then
offered to the King of Portugal, who

ITAIyY, GRKKCK, TURKEY AND SPAIN.

213

declined it for both himself and his
brother.

General Prim, who had become the
ruling spirit of the Spanish Govern-
ment, then selected Prince Frederick,
of HohenzoUern-Sigmaringen, a distant
relative of the King of Prussia. The
invitation was declined by Prince Fred-
erick in the summer of 1870, and was
transferred to his younger brother.
Prince Leopold. The French Govern-
ment, as we have seen, made this choice
the pretext for' war with Prussia. Prince
Leopold, in consequence of this, declined
the Spanish invitation.

Deeds of Violence.

After this the Spanish crown was
ofifered to Amadeo, Duke of Aosta, the
second son of Victor Emmanuel, King
of Italy, and was accepted by him. He
was formally chosen by the cortes on
on the 1 6th of December, 1870. A few
days later he set out for Spain, landing
at Carthagena. The festivities attend-
ing his arrival were brought to an end
by the assassination of General Prim,
the wisest and best of Spanish statesmen
of the time, on the 29th of December.
On the 30th King i\madeo was crowned,
and gave his consent to a liberal consti-
tution, which guaranteed civil and reli-
gious liberty to the nation.

Amadeo found his throne anything
but a bed of roses. The liberal party
desired still great changes, and the ad-
herents of Don Carlos, supported by the
constant intrigues of the priests, were
plotting the overthrow of the liberal
monarchy. In April, 1872, the Carlists
rose in open rebellion in the northern
provinces ; and on the 19th of July in
the same year a dastardly attempt was
made to assassinate the king and queen.

Thoroughly disgusted with his subjects,
Amadeo resigned his crown on the i ith
of February, 1873. His abdication was
followed by the proclamation of a re-
public, which, in 1875, gave place to a
monarchy under Alfonso.

Castelar was made president of the
new republic, which, a year later, was
overthrown. Alfonso XII. was pro-
claimed king December 30, 1874. Te-
days later the king landed at BarceloPi
and prepared to enter upon his reigx..
The year 1876 was signalized by the enc,
of the Carlist war and the restoration of
peace. Alfonso died November 25th,
1885, and was succeeded by the regent,
Queen Christina. On the opening of the
cortes, December ist, 1887, the infant
King was enthroned, and in a speech
read on that occasion the queen-regent
announced that the country was quie\
and prosperous. During October, 1888,
there was a republican outbreak at Sara
gossa against conservatives ; soon after-
ward outbreaks occurred at Seville and
Madrid. The ministry resigned Decem*
ber 9th, and was reconstitc'^ed by Senoi
Sagasta.

Spanish Republic

In the early part of 1889 amnesty
was offered to political offenders, and
efforts were made to suppress discot"
tent.

In April, 1 898, war broke out between
Spain and the United States, in which
the former was disastrously defeate'
Her navy was swept from the sea, anc*
she was compelled to relinquish Cuba,
Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands.
The details of the struggle have been
narrated in the history of the United
States in the nineteenth century, and
need not be repeated here.

CHAPTER XV.

Canada, Mexico and South America.

f

'N 1 79 1 the British pariiament divided
Canada into two provinces, called
Upper and Lower Canada, and gave
to each a legislative council ap-
pointed by the crown^ and a popular
issembly chosen by the people. Over
jach province was placed a governor ap-
pointed by the crown. In the hope of in-
roducing the Church of England as the
eligious establishment of the provinces,
m area of 3,400,000 acres of the public
land was set apart for the endowment of
die clergy. The effort proved a failure,
and in 1854 the lands were devoted to
secular purposes, and the idea of estab-
lishing a state church was abandoned.

The provinces grew steadily in popu-
lation and prosperity, and if their ad-
vance was not as rapid as that of their
southern neighbor, the United States,
yet it was as substantial. As the bitter
feelings engendered by the war died
away, cordial relations sprang up be-
tween Canada and the United States,
and a profitable commerce was inaugu-
rated between them, and grew steadily
year by year until it attained its present
vast proportions.

The introduction of steamboats upon
the St. Lawrence and the lakes did
much to promote the growth of Canada,
and increased its internal and foreign
commerce in a marked degree. In 1824
the Welland canal was begun, and was
completed in 1829, giving a continuous
water passage from Lake Ontario to
Lake Erie. It was followed by the
Lachine and other canals, all of which
have been important agents m the
growth of Canadian commerce.
214

In the early part of the nineteenth
century a bitter dispute arose in Canada
concerning the proper interpretation of
the a.ct of parliament for the govern-
ment of the two provinces. One party
insisted that Canada was in possession
of a transcript of the British constitu-
tion, and that the council, which con-
stituted the advisers of the governors
in matters of state, should be responsi-
ble to the popular assembly. The other
party maintained that tbff^ council was
responsible to the governor only, and
that the assembly had no claim upon it.
The disputes ran very high, and the
trouble was increased by the general
course of the governors of the prov-
inces, who administered their govern-
ments in an arbitrary manner, paying
little attention to the popular assem-
bly, and utterly disregarding the de-
mands of the people.

Canadian Rebellion.

In Lower Canada the popular dis-
content was very great, and in 1837 a
portion of the inhabitants of that prov-
ince, under the leadership of Louis
Joseph Papineau, took up arms with
the avowed purpose of throwing off the
rule of Great Britain. They were de-
feated by the government troops in a
series of engagements, and were at
length compelled to submit. Papineau
and the other leaders fled the coun-
try. In December, 1837, the populai
party of Upper Canada, indignant at
the arbitrary measures of Sir Francis
Head, the governor, rose in rebellion
under the leadership of William Lyon

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

215

Mackenzie. The revolt was suppressed
by the government forces after some
serious conflicts with the insurgents.

For some weeks the insurgents had
possession of Navy Island, situated in
the Niagara river, just above the falls.
Considerable sympathy was manifested
for them by the people of the State of
New York, and substantial aid was
rendered them in spite of the efforts of
the President of the United States and
the governor of New York to prevent

moored at her dock. The boat was cap-
tured after a short struggle, in which
one American was killed, and was car-
ried out into the stream and set on fire
She drifted down to the falls, ano
plunged over them in a blaze. The
British Minister at Washington at once
declared the responsibility of his gov-
ernment for the capture of the boat, and
justified it on the ground of self-defence.
In the meantime the President had
sent General Wool with a strong force to

PARLIAMENT HOUSE, OTTAWA.

it. Navy Island forms a part of Canada,
and lies near the shore of that country.
The insurgents in possession of the
island employed the steamboat Caro-
line to convey men and provisions
from the town of Schlosser, on the
American shore, to the island.

The British authorities in Canada
determined to destroy the boat. One
dark night in December, 1837, a de-
tachment from Canada was sent to
Navy Island for this purpose. Not
finding the Caroline there, they went
over to Schlosser, where she was

the Canadian oorder with orders to pre-
vent any expedition from leaving this
country to aid the Canadians. He com-
pelled the force on Navy Island to sur-
render, but the border war continued un-
til the close of 1838, when it was ended.
These outbreaks drew the attention
of the British government more closely
to the defective system of government
in operation in Canada. The people ol
Canada addressed petitions to the crown,
praying for a union of the provinces.
This prayer was granted, and in 1841
the two provinces were united under

216

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMBRlCi^

one government, which was modeled
upon the British system, and was in
every respect a vast improvement upon
<^e former establishments. The coun-
Jry was now styled the Province of
Canada. In 1 849 a general amnesty to
all who had taken part in the rebellion
jf 1 837 was passed.

In 1849 a bill was introduced into
the Canadian parliament to indemnify
certain persons for the losses sustained
by them during the rebellion. This
measure was bitterly opposed by the

vaded by the Feniant^ an organization
of Irishmen dwelling in the United
States. This insane movement was
met promptly by the Canadian authori-
ties, and the President of the United
States sent General Meade, with a suf-
ficient force of troops, to the Canadian
border to arrest the Fenian leaders and
to -seize their supplies.

On the 4th of December, 1866, dele-
gates appointed by the legislative as-
semblies of Canada, Nova Scotia, and
New Brunswick met at I/ondon to

riiittso i V-_''^'?^J'

people of Montreal, and gave rise to a
formidable and disgraceful riot, in
which the parliament was dispersed
and the parliament house burned down
by the mob. This riot induced the
parliament to remove the seat of gov-
ernment to Toronto for the next two
years, and to Quebec for the four suc-
ceeding years. In 1857 Ottawa was
selected as the permanent seat of gov-
ernment, and costly public buildings
were erected there for the use of the
various departments of the state.

In the spring of 1 866 Canada was in-

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO.

arrange the terms of a confederation.

This task was successfully performed,
and on the 7th of February, 1867, a
bill was introduced into the British
parliament creating the union. It passed
both houses, and on the 29th of March
received the royal assent. On the 22nd
of May the queen issued her proclama-
tion appointing the ist of July, 1867,
as the day from which the new confed-
eration should date its existence.

The new State was styled the Do-
minion of Canada, and was given the
right of self-government. The Gov-

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

211

ernor-General of Canada is appointed
by the crown, but all the other offices
are filled by the people or by their
chosen delegates. Canada is thus prac-
tically independent of Great Britain,
though constituting an important part
of the British empire, and owing alle-
giance to the British sovereign.

Purchase of Territory.

In 1870 Manitoba and the northwest
territories were purchased from the
Hudson Bay Company and added to
the dominion. In 1871 British Colum-
bia joined the confederation, and in
1873 Prince Edward's Island did like-
wise.

Since the confederation of the prov-
inces the chief events have been as
follows : the Red River rebellion, which
collapsed in August, 1870 ; treaty of
Washington, 187 1, dealing with fish-
eries and the mutual use of certain
canals ; outbreak of half-breeds under
Ivouis Reil, in March, 1885, resulting
in the speedy suppression of the rebel-
lion and Riel's execution ; and the
treaty for the settlement of the fisheries
dispute, signed by the British and
United States representatives February
IS, 1888. In October, 1891, the Do-
minion government refused to acqui-
esce in the copyright treaty between
England and the United States, claim-
ing that the treaty was not international.

On the 29th of July a motion for un-
restricted reciprocity with the United
States was rejected after a long debate
in the house of Commons.

The Great Canadian Pacific Railroad
was completed in 1891. Entrance to
New York was given over the New
York Central lines. It was universally

believed that the completion of this
important railway would have much to
do with the development of the re-
sources of Canada, especially the mining
industries of British Columbia, and this
has proved true.

In 1 892 an attempt was made to bring
about 1 more complete reciprocity be-
tween Canada and the United States.
Representatives of both countries were
appointed to take the subject into con-
sideration and recommend practical
methods by which closer commercial
relations could be established. Unfor-
tunately the negotiations amounted to
nothing, and were discontinued in June
of that year. The subject, however,
was not allowed to drop, but was
favorably discussed in a convention at
Ottawa called in 1893 for the purpose
of promoting tariff reform.

Vast Wealth of Mines.

In January, 1 897, a Toronto syndicate
purchased the War Eagle mine in Brit-
ish Columbia for the sum of ;^850,ooo.
This purchase had much to do with
stimulating the mining interests of that
province. Attention was called to the
great mineral wealth of that section,
which resulted in large investments on
the part of Canadian capitalists and
others in the United States.

The discovery of gold in the Klon-
dike region caused a great rush to the
gold fields, and necessitated special leg-
islation by the Canadian Parliament ;^br
the right adjustment of claims and the
preservation of law and order. During
the year large sums of gold arrived at
Victoria, British Columbia, and along
with them tales of suffering and priva-
tion endured by many of the miner*.

218

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

MEXICO IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

1 b^XlCO has been ihe scene of
many revolutions, and for
centuries was in a state of
almost constant turmoil.
This can be accounted for by Spanish
greed and oppression, which the people
from time to time resisted, being as often
overcome by superior force after suffer-
ing many indignities and after convul-
sions which frequently resulted in great
loss of life.

Insurgents Executed.

The overthrow of the reigning house
of Spain, and the elevation of Joseph
Bonaparte to the Spanish throne, caused
profound discontent in Mexico. All
classes resented it. It became necessary
to make certain modifications in the
government to suit the altered state of
affairs. On the i6th of September,
1808, the viceroy, Don Jose de Iturri-
garay, was arrested and imprisoned on
suspicion of a design to seize the crown
of Mexico. This act greatly increased
the popular discontent, and the aspira-
tions for independence took, as it were,
new life from this moment. On the
15th of September, 18 10, a formidable
revolt broke out in the province of
Guanajuato, under the leadership of
Don Miguel Hidalgo, a priest. It was
suppressed the next year, and Hidalgo
and the other leaders were shot.

This revolt was followed by a guerilla
warfare of several years, under the lead-
ership of Morelos, Victoria, Guerrero,
Bravo, Rayon, and Teran. The patriot
forces were compelled to cling to the
mountains, but their unceasing resist-
ance kept alive the long-cherished hope
/or independence. It seemed, however,

that the authority of Spain was fully
restored, and that the patriot cause was
hopeless.

The revolution of 1820 in Spain re-
vived the enthusiasm of the national
party in Mexico, and a new leader ap-
peared. This was Don August! n Itur-
bide, a native Mexican, who had dis-
tinguished himself in the civil war as
an officer in the royalist service. On
the 24th of February, 1821, he issued a
proclamation declaring Mexico inde-
pendent of Spain, and calling upon the
Mexicans to sustain him. The revolt
was successful. The whole country ac-
knowledged his authority, the royal
government was overthrown, and on
the 27th of September the city of Mexico
was surrendered to him by the viceroy,

A New Emperor.

A regency was established, and ott
19th of May, 1822, Iturbide was pro
claimed Emperor of Mexico by the
army. This act gave great offence to
the other patriot leaders, and on the 2d
of December, Santa Anna, with the sup-
port of Bravo, Guerrero, and othcs, pro-
claimed the republic at Vera Cruz. A
civil war was averted by the abdication
of Iturbide on the 19th of March, 1823.
A national congress was at once con-
vened. Iturbide was condemned to
exile, and sailed for England in May,

1823.

A provisional government was set up,
and on the 4th of October, 1824, the
Congress adopted a constitution mod-
eled upon that of the United States. B\'
virtue of this instrument Mexico be
came a republic consisting of ninetecii
States and five ten itories. General Vic-

SI^AUGHT^R OF THE MEXICANS BY THE SPANIARDS.

219

220

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

toria, one of the popular leaders, was
chosen president. Iturbide now re-
turned to attempt the recovery of his
throne, but was made prisoner, and was
shot on the 19th of July, 1824.

President Overthrown.

In 1828 the election of General Pe-
draza to the presidency over General
Guerrero led to a revolt on the part of
the followers of the latter. The out-
break was successful. Pedraza was
overthrown and driven from the coun-
try, and Guerrero assumed the presi-
dency on the ist of April, 1829. In the
same year the United States recognized
Mexico as an independent republic. In
July, 1829, a Spanish force landed near
Tampico to attempt the restoration of
the rule of Spain. It was compelled to
surrender on the nth of September.
The troops were disarmed and sent to
Havana.

Mexico, though independent, was not
destined to enjoy the blessing of a stable
government. Soon after the surrender
of the Spaniards, the vice-president,
General Bustamante, pronounced against
Guerrero, deposed him, and was himself
elected president January II, 1830. He
was succeeded by Pedraza, who three
months later, was deposed by Santa
Anna, who became president April i,
1833. Bustamante and several leading
men were exiled by the new president.
Congress now enacted a law abolishing
the compulsory payment of tithes, and
it was proposed to confiscate the prop-
erty of the church and apply it to the
payment of the national debt.

These measures led to several out-
breaks, the result of which was the re-
peal, in 1835, of the constitution of
1824, and the change from a confedera-

tion of states into a consolidated repub-
lic, with Santa Anna at its head as dic-
tator, though retaining the title of presi-
dent.

Texas, then a state of the republic,
refused to accept this change, and pro-
claimed its independence. Santa Anna
marched against the Texans in 1836,
but after gaining some success^ was de-
feated and made prisoner in the battle
of San Jacinto, April 2 1 , 1836.

The captivity of Santa Anna brought
back the reign of anarchy in Mexico.
Bustamante returned from exile, and on
the 19th of April, 1837, became presi-
dent, lyater in the year Santa Anna
returned to Mexico, and the leal power
passed into his hands. In March, 1839,
a new revolution broke out, and Santa
Anna once more became president. In
July he was overthrown by General
Nicolas Bravo, who held the office for
one week.

Disorder and Violence.

A period of confusion followed ; the
constitution was suspended ; and a dic-
tatorship, consisting of Santa Anna,
Bravo and Canalizo, was set up. In
June, 1 843, a new constitution was pro-
claimed, and Santa Anna became con-
stitutional president in 1844. A few
months later he was driven from power
by a revolution, and on the 20th of Sep-
tember, 18^4, Canalizo became presi-
dent, only to be himself deposed in the
following December by General Her-
rera, who was deposed by a new revolu-
tion on the 30th of 'December, 1845,
which made General Paredes president.

During Herrera's administration Mex-
ico became involved in a quarrel with
the United States, growing out of the
annexation of Texas by the latter power.

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

221

The details of this war have been rela-
ted in " Great Events of American His-
tory," in another part of this volume,
to which the reader is referred. During
the struggle Santa Anna returned from
exile, overthrew Paredes, made himself
president, and took personal command
of the army. The war resulted in the
triumph of the x\merican forces, and by
the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo,signed
in February, 1848, California and New
Mexico were ceded to the United States.

Repeated. Revolutions.

The result of the war was fatal to
Santa Anna. He was overthrown,
driven from the country, and was suc-
ceeded by Herrera. A series of revolu
tions followed the war, elevating first
one leader and then another to the presi-
dency. On the nth of May, 1861, Be-
nito Juarez captured the city of Mexico,
and his authority was generally recog-
nized throughout the republic. He was
one of the best of the Mexican presidents,
and inaugurated a series of useful reforms
which rendered his administration very
popular with the mass of the nation.

Marriage was made a civil contract,
perpetual monastic vows and ecclesias-
tical courts were abolished, and the
church property, which was estimated
at nearly one-half the real estate of the
country, was appropriated to the service
of the state. A little later the union
between church and state, which had
existed from the time of the conquest,
was completely severed.

These measures, though popular with
the people, gave great offence to the
church party, which determined tc de-
stroy the Juarez government at any cost.
At this juncture Spain, France and
England, presented to the Mexican gov-

ernment a series of claims for losses sus-
tained by their citizens in that country,
and failing to obtain any satisfaction
from the Juarez government, despatched
a joint expedition to Mexico to enforce
their demands. Early in December,
1 861, a Spanish force under General
Prim occupied Vera Cruz, and in Janii
ary, 1862, the English and French forces
arrived.

The Juarez government now pro-
ceeded to settle the difficulty by nego-
tiation, and agreed that the English
and Spanish claims should be paid by
turning over to them a certain propor-
tion of the customs receipts. This ar-
rangement being satisfactory to Eng-
land and Spain, their forces evacuated
Mexico in May, 1862.

Plotting with the French.

The church party had seen in the
presence of the foreign troops in Mexico
an opportunity for the destruction of
the Juarez government, and now re-
solved to put their plan in execution,
although they knew it involved the loss
of their country's liberties. They began
to plot with the French, whose claim
was the smallest, and induced the French
emperor to attempt the erection of a
monarchy in Mexico, which should
make that country in actual fact a de-
pendency of France, promising their
active aid in overcoming the resistance
of their countrymen.

Accordingly the French commander
refused to accept the arrangement which
had proved satisfactory to England and
Spain, and on the i6th of April, 1862,
France declared war against Mexico.
The French army was reinforced, and
the advance into the interior was begun.
Puebla was attacked, but the French

222

CANADA, ME^XIdO AND SOtlTH AM^klCA.

were defeated and forced back to the
coast. In 1863 the French army was
strongly reinforced, and siege was laid
to Puebla, which surrendered to General
Forey on the 17th of May, after a gal-
lant defence of three months.

A number of other successes were
won by the French, and on the loth of
June, 1863, they entered the city of

that Mexico should be a hereditary mon-
archy under an emperor of the Roman
Catholic faith.

The crown was offered to the Austrian
Archduke Maximilian, and was accepted
by him. He waived all claim to the
throne of Austria in the event of the
death of his brother, the Emperor Fran-
cis Joseph, and made farewell visits to

ENTRY OF THE FRENCH INTO THE CITY OF MEXICO.

Mexico in triumph. Juarez and his
government withdrew to San lyuis Po-
tosi.

The French and the church party at
once proceeded to cany out their scheme.
A regency was established on the 24th
of June, and on the 8th of July an as-
sembly of notables was held to decide
upon the future form of government for
Mexico. On the loth this body declared

the sovereigns of France, England and
Belgium, and to the Pope, who gave
him his special blessing. He sailed for
Mexico in April, 1864, and on the 28th
of May landed at Vera Cruz, which was
held by the French.

After a short delay there he proceeded
to the capital, welcomed all along the
route with great enthusiasm by the
church party. He made his formal entry

CANADA, MEi^tlCO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

223

into the city of Mexico on the 12th of
June, 1864. One of the first acts of
Maximilian, who was childless, was to
adopt as his heir the son of the Emperor
Iturbide. He addressed himself with
energy to the task of giving to Mexico
a good government, and it is exceed-
ingly probable that had he been able to
establish his throne he would have done
more for the country than any of its
former rulers had accomplished ; but
from the first he had to encounter the
hostility of the republican or national
party, and his failure to restore the se-
questered estates of the clergy and to
revive the old connection between
church and state, soon lost him the sup-
port of his only partisans ; and he was
kept on his throne only by the presence
of the French army.

The imperial troops drove Juarez and
his adherents back by degrees, and in
September, 1865, he reached Bl Paso,
on the Texan frontier. His forces
maintained a determined resistance, and
early in 1866 the tide began to turn in
their favor. On the 25 th of March they
captured Chihuahua.

Protest by Our Government.

In the meantime the United States,
appreciating the designs of France, had
strongly protested against the establish-
ment of the Mexican empire. At length,
the Civil War being ended, the American
government determined to give Juarez
material aid unless France should with-
draw her troops and leave the Mexicans
to settle their own affairs. The French
government was informed of this deter-
mination, and at last agreed to withdraw
its army. Upon reaching this decision,
the Emperor Napoleon sent General
Castelnau to the city of Mexico to urge

Maximilian to abdicate, as he could not
possibly succeed in holding his throne
without the aid of France.

Maximilian refused to entertain the
idea of abdication, and declined to see
the French envoy. His ministers sup-
ported him in his determination. The
withdrawal of the French army was
immediately begun, and the emperor
soon found himself dependent entirely
upon the support of a few partisans
whose desperate fortunes were so bound
up with his own that they could not
afford to desert him. The last French
detachment was withdrawn from Mexico
on the 1 6th of March, 1867.

Shouts for the Republic.

The departure of the French was fol-
lowed by a strong reaction in favor of
the republic. The forces of Juarez were
largely augmented, and the emperor,
thrown upon his own resources, deemed
it best to leave the city of Mexico, march
northward, and offer battle to the repub-
lican army. He reached Queratero at
the head of 5,000 men, and was at once
besieged in thst place by a force of
20,000 men under General Escobedo.
The place was betrayed by the imperial-
ist governor of the city, Maximilian was
made prisoner, and shot on the 19th of
June, 1867.

On the 1 6th of July Juarez returned
to the city of Mexico, and began the
work of reconstructing the government.
The constitution was re-established, and
in 1 87 1 Juarez was again elected presi-
dent. He died on the i8th of July,
1872, and was succeeded by the Chief
Justice, Ivcrdo de Tejada, who was form-
ally elected president on the 21st of No-
vember, 1872. He was re-elected in
1 876, but was soon after overthrown by

224

CANADA, MEXICO AND SoUTH AMERICA.

General Porfirio Diaz and compelled to
fly to the United States.

Diaz showed himself to be one of the
ablest Mexican rulers, and was re-elected

relations with foreign powers being
peaceful. So strong was the popular
feeling in favor of Diaz, and so great
was the confidence of the nation in kis

EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN SHOT BY MEXICAN TROOPS.

in 1884, and again in 1888; and under
him the position of the republic, with
regard both to security and development
of its resources, steadily improved, and
comparative tranquillity prevailed, the

wisdom and patriotism, that he was re-
elected in 1892, and again in 1890.

An insurrection that threatened to
plunge the country into anarchy and
rebellion broke out in 1892. General

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AND AMMUNITION HOIST

THOMAS A EDISON EXPERIMENTING IN HIS LABORATORY

M. GUIGLIELMO MARCONI

DISCOVERER AND INVENTOR OF THE Vi/IRELES" TELEGRAPH

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

225

Lorenzo Garcia was killed by his troops
who joined the rebels under Garza in

Texas. The band was, however, dis-
persed and order restored.

SOUTH AMERICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

IN I So/Napoleon declared war against
Portugal, and sent an army into that
country. The regent (afterwards
Joam VI.) and the royal family and court
at once embarked upon thefleetandsailed
for Rio de Janeiro. This was a great
gain for Brazil, and was followed by im-
portant changes in the government; the
ports were thrown open to all the world,
and trade was invited from all nations.
In 1815, upon the overthrow of Napo-
leon, Brazil was erected into a kingdom,
and when Joam VI. came to the throne
in 18 16 he took the title of King of
Portugal, Algarve and Brazil.

He continued to reside in Brazil, and
so offended his Portuguese subjects. In
September, 1820, as we have related
elsewhere, a revolution broke out in
Portugal, and the Spanish constitution
was proclaimed. Revolutionary distur-
bances occurred in Para and Pernam-
buco, and the king, fearing that the
movement would involve the whole of
Brazil, placed himself at the head of it,
and on the 26th of February, 1821, pro-
claimed the constitution of Brazil. Soon
after this he returned to Portugal, leav-
ing his son. Prince Pedro, as Regent of
Brazil. He had scarcely sailed when a
revolutionary movement broke out, in
April, 1821. Brazil was declared an in-
dependent empire on the 12th of Octo-
ber, 1822, and on the ist of December,
1822, the regent was crowned Emperor
as Dom Pedro I. A constitution was
adopted in 1824, and on the 7th of Sep-
tember, 1825, Portugal acknowledged
the independence of Brazil.

15

In 1826 Joam VI. died, and Dom Pedro
became King of Portugal . He preferred
to retain his western empire, and re-
signed the Portuguese crown to his in-
fant daughter Dona Maria da Gloria. In
the same year a war broke out between
Brazil and the Argentine republic, which
was seeking to absorb Uruguay. Peace
was made through the mediation of Eng_
land, and Montevideo or Uruguay was
constituted an independent republic.

On the 7th of April, 183 1, Pedro I.,
who had been engaged in a long dispute
with the chamber of deputies, ended
the quarrel by abdicating his crown in
favor of his son, Pedro II., the present
emperor. As the new sovereign was
but six years old, a council of regency
administered the government until 1841,
when Pedro was declared of age, and
was crowned on the i8th of July.

The reign of Pedro II. was prosper-
ous and highly beneficial to his country.
He proved a liberal and able ruler, and
spared no pains to advance the civiliza-
tion and prosperity of Brazil. In 183 1
a law placing severe restrictions upon
the slave trade was enacted, and in 1850
the traffic was finally abolished. In 1852
Brazil, in alliance with Uruguay and the
forces of Entre Rios, waged a successfu*
war against the Argentine Dictator
Rosas, who was defeated and forced to fly
to England. In 1895 Brazil, Uruguay
and the Argentine republic declared war
against Paraguay, the cause being the
unprovoked aggressions of lyOpez, the
Dictator of Paraguay, upon the allied
states.

226

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA,

The war was long and costly, and ended
only with the death of Lopez, on the
1st of March, 1871. Brazil entered into
a separate treaty with Paraguay concern-
ing boundaries and a war indemnity,
without consulting her allies. This
gave great offence to the Argentine re-
public, and came near leading to a
war with that country. The difficulty
was settled in October, 1872, by an
agreement that the Argentine republic
should negotiate separately with Para-
guay, as Brazil had done. In 1871 a
law was enacted by the Brazilian
chambers providing for the gradual
extinction of slavery throughout the
empire.

Dom Pedro was deposed in November,
1889, and took refuge in Europe. Fon-
seca was made president of the national
congress. Soon there were serious dis-
agreements between him and the con-
gress, and he attempted in 1891 to as-
sume the dictatorship. The revolution-

ary spirit again showed itself and in No
vember Fonseca resigned.

Then followed a period of constant
intrigues, ambitious schemes to rule the
country, and a succession of revolts and
insurrections that prevented anything
like a stable government. On the 15th
of November, 1894, Dr. Prudente Jose
de Moraes assumed the office of presi-
dent, and as one of his first political
acts granted amnesty to those who
had been leaders in seditious plots.
The clemency of the government, how-
ever, did not entirely suppress the spirit
^f revolt, and the republic continued
in a state of turmoil and insecurity.

Attempts were made in November,

1897, to assassinate the president, and
martial law was proclaimed. In March,

1898, Dr. Campos Salles was elected
president, but so many factions and
conflicting interests divided the popu-
lace that hearty and united support of
the government was not assured.

HISTORY OF PERU.

IN 1820 the South American States
rose in rebellion against Spain,
and proclaimed themselves inde-
pendent. Peru was the last to
take this step. General San Martin,
who had freed Chili of the Spaniards,
ente-red Peru at the head of an army of
Chilians and Buenos Ayreans, seized
the city of Lima, and drove the Span-
iards into the interior. On the 28th of
July, 1 82 1, Peru declared herself inde-
pendent of Spain, and General San
Martin was proclaimed protector of the
republic. Becoming unpopular, he re-
signed on the 19th of August, 1822, and
in February, 1824, General Bolivar was
made dictator.

On the 9th of Decembei, 1S24, the
Peruvians inflicted a decisive defeat
upon the Spaniards in the battle of
Ayacucho, and in January, 1826, ex-
pelled them from Callao, their last foot-
hold in Peru. In 1825 Bolivar resigned
the dictatorship, but before doing so,
organized the southern and southeast-
ern provinces into a separate republic,
which took the name of Bolivia.

Although independent, Peru was not
tranquil. In 1826a revolution occurred,
and the constitution proclaimed by
Bolivar was destroyed, and a new one
adopted. In 1836 President Santa Cruz,
of Bolivia, entered Peru with an army,
and proclaimed himself Supreme Pro-

CANADA, MKXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

227

tector of the Bolivio-Peruvian confeder-
ation. The union between the two States
lasted until 1839. ^ series of deposi-
tions and civil wars now ensued, but were
brought to an end in 1844 by General
Castillo, who made Menendez president.

Castillo was elected as the successor
of Menendez, and entered upon his
oiEce on the ist of April, 1845. He re-
mained in power until 185 1, and gave
to Peru the best government it had ever
known. He was succeeded by General
Bchenique, who was accused of gross
frauds in his administration. Castillo
headed an insurrection, drove Bche-
nique from power and once more be-
came master of Peru. Several deter-
mined efforts to overthrow Castillo's
government were made, but all failed,
and he succeeded in holding office until
the expiration of his term. In 1855 he
declared slavery abolished in Peru. In
October, 1862, General San Ramon suc-
ceeded Castillo as president, but died in
the following April. General Pezet
succeeded him. During Pezet's admin-
istration the Spaniards seized the Chin-
cha islands, and Peru declared war
against Spain.

Peace was made in 1865, Spain re-
storing the islands, and Peru agreeing
to pay a war indemnity of $3,000,000.
This treaty was denounced by the peo-
ple, and brought on a revolution which
overthrew Pezet, and made General
Prado dictator. He concluded an alli-
ance with Chili in December, 1865, and

in January, 1866, the two States de-
clared war against Spain. On the 2d
of May the Spanish fleet sustained a
defeat at the hands of the allies, and a few
days later withdrew from the Peruvian
waters. On the loth of January, 1868,
a successful revolution compelled Prado
to resign his office and retire to Chili.

On the 28th of July Colonel Balto
was proclaimed president, but was as-
sassinated in July, 1872. Peace was
restored in a few weeks, and on the 2d
of August Don Manuel Pardo was al-
most unanimously chosen president.
He held office until the 2d of August,
1 876, and his administration was highly
popular and successful. At length in-
ternal dissensions arose, a sanguinary
revolution broke out at lyima, December
23d, 1 88 1, and Pierolas was proclaimed
dictator. Soon after this the Chilians
occupied the town, vacating it October
23d, 1883. Insurrections and civil dis-
orders prevailed until 1885, resulting in
the retirement of Iglesias and Caceres,
rival presidents, through foreign inter-
vention. Caceres was elected president
April 23d, 1886.

Bermudez was elected president in
1 890, and a revolutionary attempt near
lyima to overthrow him was defeated.
Bermudez died in March, 1894, and in
August of the same year Caceres was
again inaugurated president. The conn-
try remained in an unsettled state and
was disturbed by repeated revolts and
uprisings, and chronic turmoil.

HISTORY OF CHILI.

HB Spaniards organized Chili as a
vice-royalty, and divided it into
thirteen districts. Like all the
Spanish provinces, it was always mis-

governed and the people were grossly
oppressed. In July, 1810, the popular
discontent broke out into revolution ;
the Spanish Governor Carrasco was

228

CANADA, MKXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA,

deposed, and the government placed in
the hands of a "junta." An outward
loyalty to Spain was maintained, but it
was the real design of the leaders of the
movement to break off all connection
with the mother country. In April,
1 8 1 1 , the royal troops were attacked by
the patriots and driven from Santiago.
General Carrera was appointed by the
"junta" supreme president of the na-
tional congress and commander-in-chief
of the army. In 1 8 1 3 he won two vic-
tories over the Spanish troops, but the
latter were largely reinforced, and before
the close of the year Chili was com-
pelled to submit once more to the au-
thority of Spain.

Spanish Tyranny.

During the next three years the ty-
ranny of the Spanish officials was more
odious than it had been before the out-
break. The patriots now raised an army
in the neighboring province of La Plata,
and made General San Martin its com-
mander. He marched into Chili, and
won an important victory over the roy-
alist forces at Chacabuco on the 12th of
February, 18 17. A provisional govern-
ment was set up by the patriots, and Don
Bernardo O'Higgins was placed at its
head as supreme dictator. The Span-
iards now rallied and defeated the
Chilians with heavy loss at Chaucha-
rayada, but were themselves utterly
routed by the patriots at Chilenos
on the 5th of April, 1818. Not more
than 500 Spaniards escaped from the
field.

This victory entirely destroyed the
Spanish power in Chili, Peru and Bue-
nos Ayres, and secured the independ-
ence of those states. The Spaniards
retreated to the port of Valdivia, which

they held until 1820, when they surren-
dered to the Chilian forces.

The dictatorship of General O'Hig-
gins lasted until 1823, when, having
become unpopular, he was forced to re-
sign his power. A provisional govern-
ment of three succeeded him, but gave
way in the course of a few weeks to
General Freire as dictator. In 1828 the
first Chilian constitution was adopted.
It was revised in 1831-33.

A Revolt Suppressed.

Chili has been the most orderly of
the South American republics, but has
not entirely escaped revolution. The
most serious of these outbreaks occurred
in 185 1 ; one in April and the other in
September. The latter was the more
formidable of the two, but both were at
length suppressed. The September re-
volt was caused by the effort of General
De la Cruz to overthrow the president
of the republic, Don Manuel Montt. It
cost the government a sacrifice of 4,000
soldiers for its suppression, and greatly
injured the prosperity of the country.
At its close a general amnesty was pro-
claimed to the insurgents, and President
Montt applied himself with energy to
the restoration of the prosperity of the
country.

He was re-elected in 1856. His ad-
ministration was the ablest in the his-
tory of the republic. It gave to the
country a well-arranged code of laws,
established a tribunal of commerce and
a bank of discount and deposit at Val-
paraiso, arranged the finances on a se-
curer basis, and negotiated treaties of
commerce and friendship with France,
Sardinia, the United States and Great
Britain. In 1862 the Araucanians gave
great trouble to the government. Under

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

229

the leadership of a Frenchman named
De Tonniens, they endeavored to throw
off the authority of Chili and make them-
selves independent. They were com-
pelled to submit.

Coast Blockaded.

When the war broke out between
Peru and Spain, in 1864, Chili warmly
sympathized with her sister republic.
This sympathy drew upon her the hos-
tility of Spain, and the next year the
coast of Chili was blockaded by the
Spanish fleet. Chili, late in 1865, de-
clared war against Spain. On the 26th
of November the Chilian steamer Es-
meralda captured the Spanish steamer
Covadonga, with all the correspond-
ence of the Spanish admiral on board.
This event so mortified Admiral Pareja
that he committed suicide. He was suc-
ceeded by Admiral Nunez. On the 14th
of January, 1866, Chili entered into an
alliance with Peru, and on the 7th of
February the allied fleets defeated a
Spanish squadron.

On the 31st of March Admiral Nunez,
regardless of the protests of all the for-
eign representatives at that port, bom-
barded the city of Valparaiso, destroy-
ing property to the amount of more
than ten millions of dollars, and demol-
ishing nearly all the public buildings
and many private edifices. Not a shot
was returned from the town. The
greater part of the loss fell upon the
foreign residents. In the following
month the Spanish fleet took its depart-
ure from the Chilian waters. The
United States now offered their medi-
ation between Spain and the allies, and
on the nth of April, 1871, a treaty
arranging an armistice and an indefinite
truce was signed at Washington.

In 1869 the Araucanians again en-
deavored to throw off the Chilian rule,
but in the following year were put down,
and their country was permanently occu-
pied by the Chilian forces. From this
time the history of Chili was compara-
tively uneventful until 1891, when a
revolution occurred, resulting in a vic-
tory for the insurgent forces. In the
decisive battle 300 of President Balma-
ceda's forces were defeated with heavy
loss. An attempt was made at Valpa-
raiso on May 7th to assassinate the lead-
ing members of the cabinet.

Chilian Steamer Seized.

On the 5th of May the insurgent
Chilian steamer Itata was seized by
United States officers at San Diego,
California ; she escaped, and arriving at
Iquique, June 4th, was delivered to the
American warships. The suicide of
Balmaceda followed his downfall, and a
provisional Junta was formed. The
crew of the United States steamer Bal-
timore having met with outrageous
treatment by the police of Valparaiso,
our government promptly demanded an
apology from Chili. The trouble was
at length amicably settled.

On January 3, 1892, the Chilian riot-
ers were sentenced (some to imprison-
ment and some to penal servitude), for
assaulting the sailors of the Baltimore,
and the President of Chili apologized to
the United States government. In
August, 1894, an arbitration commis-
sion at Washington awarded our gov-
ernment $240,564 for claims against
Chili. Erraguriz was elected president
in July, 1896. In July, .'897, boun-
dary disputes wilh Argentina were
referred to the arbitration of Queen.
Victoria.

230

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOTJTH AMERICA.

UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA.

'PANISH rule here, as else-
where, bore very hard upon
the people, and finally re-
sulted in revolution. The
first outbreak was made in 1781, and
was suppressed. It was followed by
another unsuccessful attempt in 1795.
The authority of Spain was not con-
tested again until 181 1, when the people
rose in rebellion and drove out the
Spanish forces. The victories of Boli-
var established the independence of
New Granada, and in 18 19 the state be-
came a member of the republic of Co-
lombia. This confederation was broken
up by the withdrawal of Venezuela in
1829 and Ecuador in 1830. In 1831
New Granada declared itself an inde-
pendent republic, and in 1832 adopted
a constitution. The chief executive
power was confided to a president, who
was to be elected for a term of four
years. From this time until i860 the
history of the republic was mainly
peaceful and uneventful.

Early in i860 a revolution broke out,
headed by General Mosquera, the chief
of the liberal party. President Ospina
was overthrown, and Mosquera seized
the government. A convention was
held at Bogota in 1861, and a new re-
public was organized under the name
of the United States of Colombia ; a
constitution was adopted, and Mosquera
was made dictator. The civil war was
brought to an end in December, 1862,
by the submission of the conservative
party to the new republic. A national
congress then met at Rio Negro on the
4th of February, 1863, and Mosquera
resigned his dictatorial powers to this
body.

A new constitution was promulgated
on the 8th of May, 1863, and subse-
quently Mosquera was appointed pro-
visional president, to hold office till
April I, 1864, when he was to be vsuc-
ceeded by a president elected by the
people. The new constitution contained
provisions confiscating the property of
the church, and establishing religious
liberty. These provisions aroused the
hostility of the priests and their follow-
ers, who, headed by the Archbishop o^'
Bogota, threw every obstacle in the wa\
of the government.

These disputes led to an attempt on
the part of Mosquera, who had again
been chosen president in 1866, to seize
the whole power of the government.
He was defeated and condemned to two
years of exile. The principles of reli-
gious liberty and immunity from im-
prisonment for debt remained undis-
turbed. In 1875 an outbreak in some
of the Atlantic states occurred, but was
put down. In 1876 an unsuccessful
revolution was begun by the clerical
party, but was suppressed in the follow-
ing year.

In 1886 a fresh constitution wa^
adopted, based on that of the United
States, placing the central authority in
the strengthened hands of the federal
government. An insurrection broke out
in 1885, the government troops were
defeated, and peace was restored Since
then the history of the country K^^ been
uneventful.

Venezuela remained under Spanish
rule until the early part of the present
century. \t warmly opposed the acces-
sion of Joseph Bonaparte to the Span-
ish throne; and on the 5 th of July, 181 1,

SCKNES IN BRITISH GUIANA AND VENEZUELA

223

232

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

threw oflf its allegiance to Spain, and
declared itself independent. In 1812
the treaty of Victoria restored it to
Spain. The Spanish rule was hateful
to the people, and in 18 13 Venezuela
again revolted under the leadership of
General Simon Bolivar. A long struggle
ensued, and in 18 19 the independence
of the country was practically secured,
and the republic of Colombia, consist-
ing of New Granada, Venezuela, and
Ecuador, was established. The war
with Spain did not close until 1823,
but the result was assured from the
time of the formation of the republic.
In 1 82 1 a constitution was adopted. In
1829 Venezuela withdrew from the
Colombian republic, and became an in-
dependent state. In 1830 Ecuador be-
came a separate republic. The dissolu-
tion of the old confederation was peace-
ful and amicable. For the next fifteen
years the history of Venezuela is peace-
ful and uneventful. In 1846 General
Monagas became president. A period
of constant civil war now set in, and
lasted until June, 1863, when the acces-
sion of General Falcon to the presi-
dency restored tranquillity to the coun-
try. Several years of peace followed,
and then a new revolution broke out
and resulted in the establishment of a
provisional government under Guzman
Blanco, in April, 1869. The next year
he convened a congress at Valencia,
and compelled that body to appoint

him provisional president of the repub
lie, with extraordinary powers. In
February, 1873, he was elected by the
people for a term of four years.

There has never been any agreement
between Great Britain and Venezuela
as to the boundary line between the lat-
ter country and British Guiana. The
Venezuelan Government represented to
ours at Washington that Greg "Britain
was disposed to make encroachments
and claim territory- c.iat did not by right
belong to her.

In December, 1895, President Cleve-
land sent a strong message to Congress
on this subject, in which he took occa-
sion to assert in very plain terms the
Monroe Doctrine. The message was
received with great favor, and a com-
mission of investigation was appointed
by Congress. For a time there was
loud talk of war between Great Britain
and the United States, but wiser coun-
sels prevailed, and Great Britain fur-
nished the commission with all the in-
formation in its possession, which could
be of service in reaching a just and
equitable conclusion.

In 1899 a commission to determine
the boundary line between Venezuela
and British Guiana assembled in Paris.
Ex-President Harrison was counsel for
the Republic of Venezuela, and the com-
mission reached an agreement which
was recommended to the two govern-
ments.

BRITISH

"CiXCEPT for two short periods the

£^ settlements composing British

^ " Guiana were held by the

Dutch down to 1803, when they were

taken possession of by the English.

GUIANA.

One of them, Berbice, was at first ad-
ministered as a distinct colony, but in
1 83 1 it was incorporated with the rest
of British Guiana.

During slave-holding time sugar-

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH ivMERICA.

233

planting brought some degree of pros-
perity to these colonies; but their pro-
ductiveness in this respect was very
sensibly crippled by the abolition of
slavery, which deprived them of their
supplies of the requisite kind of labor
for the plantations. Since that event
coffee and cotton have almost entirely
ceased to be grown; and the cultiva-
tion of beet-root for sugar caused a

very serious crisis in Guiana cane-

planting.

British and Dutch Guiana, however,
still shows signs of vitality. The cane-
sugar industry, if not reviving, is at least
not retrograding, whilst gold-mining is
a decidedly progressive industry. Ex-
cept for gold-mining, which, however,
remains stationary, French Guiana is
in a hopelessly deplorable condition.

HISTORY OF BOLIVIA.

['FTER the revolution of 1820 it
became independent of Spam.
In 1825 it was erected into
an independent republic by General
Simon Bolivar, and was named Bolivia
in honor of him. A national conven-
tion was assembled, and General Boli-
var was requested to prepare a constitu-
tion. General Sucre was chosen pres-
ident, and continued in office until
1828, when he was overthrown and ex-
pelled from Bolivia by General Gamarra.
Shortly after this he was assassinated.
Sucre was succeeded by General Blanco,
who, a few months later, was over-
thrown and slain in a revolution hea led
by General Balibian.

In 1829 Mariscal Santa Cruz was
elected president. He held office until
February, 1839. In ^^36 he became
the head of the state in Peru, styling
himself the Supreme Protector of the
Bolivio-Periivian confederation. This
union between the two states was broken
in 1839 by the overthrow of Santa Cruz
by a new revolution. A period of con-
fusion and civil war followed in Bolivia.
In 1858 Dr. Linares became president,
and ruled with dictatorial power. He
was overthrown in 186 1, and Acha was
named provisional president. In De-

cember, 1864, General Melgarejo headed
a new revolution, and in February, 1865,
defeated the government forces and
became president. General Belzu at-
tempted to overturn him, but was de-
feated and killed. Another revolt was
put down in January, 1 866.

In that year Bolivia joined the alli-
ance of Peru, Ecuador and Chili against
Spain. In March, 1867, a large district
in the northern part of the republic was
added to Brazil. In December a formi-
dable revolution, having for its object
the restoration of Acha to the presi-
dency, broke out. It was put down
early in 1868. In February, 1869, Mel-
garejo, with the unanimous consent of
the national congress, declared himself
dictator. In May he restored the con-
stitution, but continued to exercise his
dictatorial powers. In October a new
revolution broke out under the leader-
ship of A. Morales. The outbreak was
put down, but was renewed in July,
1870, only to be stamped out again. In
1871 a successful revolution drove Mel-
garejo out of the country, and Morales
became president, for one year. In No-
vember Melgarejo was assassinated m
Lima, by his son-in law.

Morales survived him a little more

234

CANADA, MKXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

than a year, and was murdered by his
son-in-law on the 27th of November,
1872. In May, 1873, Don Adolfo Bal-
livian became president of the republic.
Ill health soon compelled him to with-
draw from public life, and Dr. Tomas
Frias was appointed to succeed him, in
February, 1874. On the 14th of the
same month General Ballivian died.
His death was followed by a series of
revolutionary disturbances, which were
not finally crushed until April, 1875.

Bolivia is naturally one of the richest
countries of South America, but its
great mountain chains cut it off from
all communication with the sea or the
rest of the continent on the western
side, except by the tedious and expen-
sive process of mule transport across
the mountains. On the eastern side
this obstacle to the progress of the re-
public does not exist. The Madeira
river drains a large portion of the re-
public, receives the waters of the greater
number of its streams, and finally empties
into the Amazon. For about 1 50 miles it
is obstructed by rapids. Below the rapids

it is navigable to the Amazon, whicl
river gives ready access to the sea.

In 1872 it was resolved to build a
railway around these rapids, and to
bring Bolivia into direct communica-
tion with the rest of the world. In
1876 Bolivia joined Peru in a war
against Chili. In 1879 Bolivia was
swept by a revolution ; Diaz, at that
time president, was deposed and com-
pelled to flee, and Campero was elected
to be his successor. Peace was estab-
lished with Chili, and the conditions
were finally settled in December, 1883.
In August, 1888, Aniceto Arce, presi-
dent, suppressed a revolution and re-
stored peace.

In 1892 an insurrection by General
Camacho was suppressed and Baptista
was declared president. An ultimatum
was addressed to Peru demanding satis-
faction within twenty-four hours for in-
vasion of territory. The Bolivian Min-
ister was recalled, and finally the dis-
pute was referred to arbitration. On
the 20th of August, 1896, Alonso as-
sumed the presidency.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

IN 1776 the viceroyalty of Buenos
Ayres was created. It embraced
the countries now known as the
Argentine republic, Bolivia, Uru-
guay, and Paraguay. In 1806, Spain
being at war with Great Britain, a small
British force captured Buenos Ayres
and Montevideo, but was soon driven
out by the inhabitants. Another effort
was made by a stronger British force to
capture Buenos Ayres in 1807, but was
repulsed.

In 1 8 10 Buenos Ayres threw off the
Spanish yoke, and proclaimed its inde-

pendence. The war was decided m
1 812 by the surrender of the Spanish
forces at Montevideo. In January, 181 3,
a "sovereign assembly" was convened
at Tucuman, then the capital of Buenos
Ayres, and the administration of the
government was confided to it. The
independence of the republic being
established, an army was sent into
Chili, under General San Martin, and
aided the Chilians in driving the Span-
iards from that province. Peru next
assisted, and the independence of that
country was secured in 1821.

CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA.

235

In i8i6 the new republic took the
name of "The United Provinces of La
Plata," and in 1 8 17 General Puyerredon
was made supreme dictator. Somewhat
later the city of Buenos Ayres was
made the capital of the republic. In
1820 the dictatorship was abolished,
and a democratic form of government
was instituted, with General Rodigruez
at its head.

Peace was made with Brazil in 1828,
through the mediation of England, and
the independence of the republic of
Uruguay was recognized by La Plata.
In 1 83 1 the Argentine republic was
formed by the confederation of the prov-
inces of Buenos Ayres, Corrientes, En-
tre-Rios, and Santa F6. A little later
some of the other provinces joined the
union. This was followed by efforts of
some of the leading o'fficers of the army
to overthrow the republic and seize the
supreme power.

Made Dictator.

This unsettled state of affairs con-
tinued until 1835, when Rosas, who
had been chosen president in 1833, was
made dictator. He held office until
1 8 5 2, and during this period governed the
republic with firmness and sternness. He
made repeated efforts to force Paraguay
and Uruguay to join the Argentine con-
federation. These efforts involved him
in a quarrel with Brazil, which was also
seeking to get possession of Uruguay.

In September, 1852, a levolution
broke out in the province of Buenos
Ayres, which withdrew from the con-
federation and established a government
of its own. This act led to repeated
quarrels and conflicts between the Ar-
gentine confederation and Buenos Ayres.
On the 17th of December, 1871, the

Argentine troops were defeated by the
forces of Buenos Ayres under General
Mitre. The Argentine confederation
was now remodeled, with Buenos Ayres
as the leading state. The city of Buenos
Ayres was made the capital of the re-
public, a constitution was adopted, and
General Mitre was chosen president.
In 1865 the Argentine republic de-
clared war against Paraguay, and en-
tered into an offensive and defensive alli-
ance with Brazil and Uruguay. The
struggle resulted in the utter over-
throw of Paraguay, the aggressions of
which state provoked the war in the
year 1870.

Numerous Outbreaks.

The alliance of the Argentine con-
federation with Brazil and Uruguay
gave great offence to certain parties in
the republic, and led to several out-
breaks. These were suppressed. The
peace of 1870 was followed by a formi-
dable rebellion in Entre-Rios, which
lasted a year, and was put down only
at the cost of an immense number of
lives. The revolt was renewed in 1 873,
but was suppressed in the course of a
few months.

In 1874 the contest over the presi-
dential election plunged the country
into a new civil war, which lasted
several months and caused much suffer-
ing. It was settled by the acknow- '
ledgment of the president elected by
the people. On June 1 3th, 1 886, Juarez
Celman was elected president. Since
then the great material progress of the
country has been accompanied by an
equally remarkable movement in favor
of stability of government. The policy
of the government toward agricultural
immigrants is highly liberal.

CHAPTER XVL

Asia and Africa in the Nineteenth Century.

TT^HINA and Japan have occupied
I Vr^ a large share of public attention

xJg _^ during the century, and both
have undergone important
changes. This is all the more remark-
able from the fact that they have re-
mained in a stereotyped state for ages,
and gave no signs of progress until
within a comparatively recent period.

Towards the end of the seventeenth
century the Chinese government, while
refusing to Great Britain, as a Euro-
pean power, permission to trade with
the empire, granted that privilege to
the British East India Company. This
company conducted the trade with
China until 1834, when its charter ex-
pired. The British government then
sent Lord Napier to superintend the
trade with China, but he was refused
permission to communicate with the
imperial viceroy at Canton on terms of
equality. He endeavored to force his
way to Canton with two frigates, but
after a spirited engagement with the '
forts at the Bogue, September nth,
1834, withdrew to Macao, where he
died about a month later. After this the
trade between the British merchants
and the Chinese was carried on for
several years without the superintend-
ence of the British officials. One of the
principal articles of this traffic was
opium, of which large quantities were
sold yearly in China by British mer-
chants.

The imperial government at first tol-
erated this trade, but, at length, becom-
ing alarmed by the fearful evils which
the use of opium was fastening upon the
236

people of China, endeavored to put a^
stop to it. In the autumn of 1837 Cap-
tain Elliot, the English representative
at Canton, was ordered by an imperial
decree to send away the opium ships
and discontinue the trade in that article.
This command was disregarded and the
trade went on. In the early part of
1839 the imperial Viceroy Lin, acting
under the orders of his government,
seized and destroyed all the opium on
hand at Canton, to the value of $10,-
000,000. An illicit trade in opium at
once sprang up, and was resented by
the Chinese Government, which de-
clared all commercial relations with
Great Britain at an end.

Famous Opium War.

This led to the opium war, which is
the most prominent event of the century
in the history of China. The result was
that China was forced to surrender her
exclusiveness, and enter into more inti-
mate commercial relations with Europe.
The war was brought to an end by the
treaty of Nankin, in August, 1842. The
island of Hong Kong was ceded to the
British, and the ports of Canton, Amoy,
Foochoo, Ningpo and Shanghai were
thrown open to the trade of the worla,
and made the official residences of Eu-
ropean consuls. China was also com-
pelled to pay to Great Britain an indem-
nity of $21,000,000. In 1842 Caleb
Cushing, who had been sent out by the
United States to China, arrived in that
country and readily negotiated a com-
mercial treaty between the two coun-
tries, July 3, 1844. This was foUowec^

ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

23t

by a treaty with France, signed October

23, 1844-

The Chinese government never meant
to observe these treaties in good faith,
and its treatment of the foreigners with-
in its dominions was at all times marked
by deceit and an ill- concealed hostility.
This feeling led to constant disputes be-

France had experienced similar
wrongs at the hands of the Chinese, and
made common cause with England. The
two powers now resolved to force China
to a settlement, and in 1857 sent a joint
expedition to that country. Canton was
bombarded by the Anglo-French fleet
on the 28th of December, and the next

VIEW OF VICTORIA— HONG KONG.

tween the imperial authorities and the
foreign consuls and merchants. In Oc-
tober, 1856, matters were brought to a
crisis by the seizure of the Arrow, a
British vessel built in China, by the
Chinese officials. This act led to a de-
sultory war between China and Great
Britain, which lasted several years, and
in which the Chinese were. a.s a rule,
the winners.

day was occupied by the English and
French land forces, which numbered
less than 6,000 men. The viceroy Yeh
was captured, but the Chinese Govern-
ment endeavored to offset this reverse by
degrading Yeh and appointing his suc-
cessor. Russia and the United States now
i joined England and France in endea-
i voring to force China to negotiate more
1 liberal treaties with the western powers.

238

ASIA ANb AFRICA IN THE NINKTBKNTH CENTURY.

The action of the Chinese Govern-
ment was unsatisfactory, and the allied
forces attacked and captured the forts
at the mouth of the Pei-ho, and pushed
on to Tien-tsin, fifty miles above the
mouth of the river. The Chinese Gov-
ernment now yielded, and entered into
treaties with Great Britain, France,
Russia and the United States, which
stipulated for the residence of foreign
ministers at Pekin, for the opening of
several ports in addition to those named
in the treaty of Nankin, for travel and
trade under certain conditions in the
whole empire, for the free navigation of
the Yangste-kiang river, and the settle-
ment of the transit-dues question. Great
Britain was paid an indemnity of five
and-a-half million dollars, and France
a smaller sum.

British Navy Defeated.

China endeavored as usual to evade
this treaty, and the imperial authori-
ties exerted themselves by prescribing
a most unusual route for them, and im-
posing various and vexatious delays
upon them, to prevent the foreign min-
isters from reaching Pekin. The Bri-
tish minister thereupon ordered Ad-
miral Hope to force the passage of the
Pei-ho. That officer attempted to ex-
ecute his orders, but was driven back
with great loss by the forts at the mouth
of the river. The British and French
ministers then withdrew to Shanghai
to await the instructions of their re-
spective governments. The American
.minister, Mr. Ward, concluded to ac-
cept the Chinese programme, and sub-
mitting to many inconveniences and
indignities, at length reached Pekin.
He was denied an interview with the
emperor, except upon conditions de-

grading to himself and his country,
and returned in disgust to Shanghai,
where he joined his European col-
leagues.

England and France resented the bad
faith of China by renewing the war
with that country. A joint expedition
was sent against the Chinese capital.
The Pei-lorts were taken August 2ist,
i860, and Tien-tsin was occupied Au-
gust 24th. The Chinese officials endea-
vored to stay the progress of the allies by
negotiation, but their design being un-
derstood, the Anglo-French forces
pushed on, and on the 6th of October
arrived before Pekin. The operations
against the city were conducted with
vigor; the emperor's "summer palace,"
a magnificent structure, was plundered
and burned, and on the 13th of October
one of the gates of the city was surren-
dered to the allies.

The imperial government was now
forced to yield, and the treaties with
France and England were renewed and
ratified. The allies then withdrew to
the coast. Since that time the policy
of China has been to keep faith with
the western powers.

Great Rebellion.

During all this time China had been
torn by a rebellion of unusual magni-
ture. This was the Taiping rebellion,
which broke out in the southern pro-
vinces of the empire in 1850. At first
the rebels were successful, and overran
a large part of southern China. The
war lasted until 1864, when the last body
of rebels was dispersed and the impe-
rial authority restored. In 1857 the
Mohammedans of Yunnan rose in rebel-
lion, and were for a time victorious. This
revolt extended over a period of fifteen

ASIA AND AFRICA m THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

23&

years, but was suppressed in 1872. A
second Mohammedan rebellion broke
out in the north-western part of the em-
pire in 1862. It was suppressed in 1873.
In 1 87 1 China became involved in a
quarrel with Russia, and was obliged to
cede to that power the district of Kulja
j,nd the whole of the basin of the Hi, a

the various European powers atd to the
United States. iVt its head was Anson
Burlingame, formerly minister from the
United States to China. " It had its
origin in the desire of the government
to demonstrate to western .powers its
friendliness, and to forestall demands ol
an extreme character which it antici-

TNTERIOR OE A CHINESE TEMPLE, SHOWrNG THEIR IDOLS,

region embracing an area of about 600,-
000 square miles, and containing a pop-
ulation of 2,000,000 people.' In 1861
the Emperor Hieng-fun, who had suc-
ceeded the Emperor Tau-Kwang, in
1856, died, and his son T'oung-che came
to the throne. He was but five years
old at the time. In 1 873 he was declared
of age and assumed the government.

In the autumn of 1867 an embassy
was sent by the Chinese government to

pated would be made during the revision
of the treaties of 1858 then about to
take place. Its chief seized the oppor-
tunity to place before the world the in-
dications of a marked change of policy
on the part of the government, and to
demonstrate that the old system of re-
course to local authorities for the redress
of grievances should be abandoned in
favor of representation to the imperial
authorities at Pekin. The facts of his

240

ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

(Burlingame's) appointment to repre-
sent China, and of his being accredited
to western states on terms of equality,
afforded an indication of the marvelous
change which had ensued since the war,
and a more complete justification of the
wisdom of the allies in insisting upon
residence at the capital."

Oold-Blooded Massacre.

In 1870 the Chinese attacked the
French consulate at Tien-tsin and mas-
sacred the consul, vice-consul, the inter-
preter of the French legation at Pekin
and his wife, a Catholic priest, nine sis-
ters of charity, and some others. The
Frence consulate, the cathedral and
the missionary hospital were destroyed.
The outbreak was severely punished
by the Chinese government, and an
apology was made to France.

In 1875 the Emperor Kwang-liu, the
reigning sovereign (1878), succeeded to
the throne. On the 30th of June, 1876,
the first line of railway in China, from
Shanghai to Woosung, a distance of
eleven miles, was opened. It was built
by an English company.

Several outbreaks occurred during
1 89 1 , and riotous demonstrations against
missionaries and mission stations aroused
the indignation of Christian nations.
A combined protest against these perse-
cutions were made to the Chinese gov-
ernment by the ministers of foreign
countries resident in China. Thereupon
the government greatly increased the
severitiy of its measures against crimi-
nals who had been abusing foreigners,
and determined to use all its power for
the protection of the foreign residents
of the empire. This had the inten^'ed
'jffect.

In 1 894 war broke out between China

and Japan. Japan claimed the right to
protect her subjects in Corea. Corea,
although an independent kingdom hav-
ing its own emperor, was to all intents
and purposes a part of China, and all
attempts on the part of Japan to extend
her influence in Corea were strenuously
resisted.

On the 30tli of June, 1894, the King
of Corea renounced all subjection to
China, and called on the Japanese for
help. The demands of Japan, for ex-
tensive reforms, and for the observance
of a treaty made in 1885, were opposed
by China, and hostilities immediately
began. A British despatch boat, con-
veying Chinese troops, was attacked by
Japanese warships, sunk off Asan, and
many were killed. In July, the Japan-
ese, under Gen. Oshima, gained impor-
tant victories. In August, the Chinese
made a formal declaration of war.

Great Battle of Yalu.

In September, the Chinese Emperor
transmitted a circular to the great
powers justifying the position of China
in the pending struggle. A great naval
battle at the mouth of Yalu river on
September 17th resulted in terrible
slaughter, and the destruction of eight
Chinese vessels. This was the turning
point of the conflict, and Japanese suc-
cesses followed in quick succession both
on land and sea. In short, the wonderful
vigor and military prowess of Japan sur-
prised the world, and, in the contest with
China, she was completely successful.

On the 17th of April, 1895, a peace
treaty was signed, which assured the in-
dependence of Corea, the retention by
Japan of conquered places, and a heavy
indemnity for the expenses of the war.
But later, the ministers of Russia, Ger-

ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

241

many and France protested against tfie
annexation of Chinese territory to the
Japanese Empire, and Japan was cheated
out of a large part of what her victories
had gained.

Since this war with Japan the pro-

gress of events in China has been com-
paratively uneventful, the latest inter-
national transactions being concessions
made to Russia and Great Britain, both
of which powers are anxious to extend
their dominions in the East.

JAPAN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

J* OR ages Japan maintained a policy
of utter seclusion from the rest of
the world, and the vessels of for-
eign nations were not allowed to enter
ner ports. It is marvelous that an em-
pire, so long isolated and dead to both
hemispheres, should have been so com-
pletely transformed, showing as great
eagerness to gain the front ranks of civ-
ilized and enlightened nations, as before
she exhibited in secluding herself from
their touch and influence.

Towards the middle of the nineteenth
century European and American ves-
sels began to frequent the Japanese
waters, and after the settlement of Cali-
fornia American whalers pursued their
trade regularly in the home waters of
the empire. Many of these were wrecked
on the coast of Japan, and their crews
were treated with great harshness by
the native authorities. In order to put
a stop to this, and to establish friendly
relations with the empire, the United
States government, in 1852, despatched
an expedition under the command of
Commodore Matthew C. Perry.

The American commander was in-
structed to demand protection for Amer-
ican seamen wrecked on the Japanese
coast, and to effect a treaty of commerce
and good will with the imperial gov-
ernment In July, 1853, he entered the
bay of \ edo with four ships of war, and
"^elivere^ to the Japanese authorities a

16

letter from the President of the United
States, setting forth the demands and
wishes of his government. He then
sailed for China. In February, 1854,
he returned with seven ships of war,
and anchored within a few miles of
Yedo. He managed by his skillful and
judicious efforts to induce the shogun,
in other words the military governor of
the Eastern provinces, sometimes styled
tycoon, to enter into the desired treaty,
which was sigued at Kanagawa on the
31st of March, 1854, and which opened
the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate or
Hokodadi to foreign commerce, and
made them places of consular residence.

In September a British squadron, un-
der Sir James Stirling, entered the har-
bor of Nagasaki and concluded a treaty
with the shogun, by which Hakodate
and Nagasaki were thrown open to for-
eign commerce. The Russians and
Dutch then made similar treaties with
the shogun. On the 17th of June, 1857,
Mr. Harris, the United States consul to
Japan, made a still more advantageous
treaty with the shogun, by which the
harbor of Nagasaki was also opened to
American commerce.

In 1858, in spite of the opposition of
the Japanese, Mr. Harris proceeded to
Yedo, and concluded a third treaty still
more advantageous to the United States.
During the same year Lord Elgin, es-
corted by a British, squadron, reached

242

ASIA AND AFRICA IN 1-HB NINETKENTH CENTURY.

Yedo and negotiated a treaty between
Great Britain and Jaj^an, by which it
was agreed that the ports of Hakodate,
Kanagawa and Nagasaki, should be
opened to British subjects after July i,
1859. "The arrival of Commodore Perry

the mikado as the spiritual ruler of th(
empire who did not concern him sell
with its temporal affairs. The shogun
on his part encouraged this belief, and
signed the treaties without referring
them to the mikado or asking his con-

was the beginning of the intercourse of
Japan with the nations of America and
Europe, an intercourse which has en-
tirely changed the destiny of the em-
pire.

All the foreigners made "Lne mistake
of regarding the shogun as the rightful
Emperor of Japan. They looked upon

INTERIOR OF A JAPANESE THEATRE.

sent to their signature. I'his act wa?
looked upon by the Japanese as a fresli
usurpation of power on the part of the
shogun, and aroused a strong reaction
in favor of the mikado. The nation
was opposed to the violation by the sho
gun of the traditional policy of non
intercourse with foreigners, and thd

ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

243

country resounded with the cry, " Honor
the mikado and expel the barbarian."
The shogun was regarded as a traitor,
and the cause of the mikado was greatly
strengthened.

In 1858 the shogun died, and the
prime minister li, a man of great ability
and unscrupulous character, became re-
gent He set aside the true successor,
and bestowed the shogunate upon the
infant Prince of Kii, but kept the power
in his own hands. This arbitrary act
aroused a strong opposition to him
which he suppressed by imprisoning and
executing the leaders of the movement.
In 1859 he despatched an embassy to
the United States without consulting
the mikado, and so increased the hatred
of the people for him. On the 23d oi
March, 1 860, he was assassinated m open
daylight in the streets of Yedo.

Firing on Ships-
The party of the mikado now grew with
wonderful rapidity, and the shogun's
followers, seeing the steady drift ol
popular sentiment, sought to regain
their lost ground by trying^ to Dersnade
the foreigners to close the ports and leave
Japan, but without success. About this
time the forces of the Prince of Choshm
(Nogato), acting under orders of the
mikado, fired upon the ships of^ the
United States, France, Great Britain
and the Netherlands. This act was pun-
ished by the treaty powers shortly after,
by sending a combined squadron to Shi-
monosek, and capturing that port after
a severe bombardment. Japan was com-
pelled to pay an indemnity of $3^(^00,
000. This victory opened the eyes of
the Japanese to the power of the for-
eigners, and made them more cautious
in their conduct towards them.

Though the Prince of Choshin had
obeyed the mikado in firing upon the
foreign vessels, he had disobeyed the
shogun, and the latter, in 1866, inarched
to punish him for his disobedience.
The forces of the shogun were armed
and disciplined in the old Japanese
style ; those of the Prince of Choshin ■
were armed with European rifles and
artillery, and had been disciplined by
Dutch officers. A campaign of three
months ensued, and resulted in the
overwhelming defeat of the shogun,
who, worn out with mortification at his
failure, and with disease, died on the
19th of September, 1866. He was suc-
ceeded by Keiki, the last of the shoguns.
The mikado's party now proceeded
to bolder acts, and in October, 1867,
urged the mikado to abolish the sho-
gunate and resume the government of
the empire. This proposal received so
much support among the most power-
ful princes and nobles of Japan, that on
the 9th of November, 1867, Keiki re^
signed the shogunate.

Radical Changes.

This was a great gain, but it was not
all the mikado's party desired. They
determined to go further and restore
the government to the basis on which
it had existed prior to a. d. 1200. On
the 3d of January, 1868, they seized the
palace, drove out the nobles, and created
a government under which the highest
offices were filled by the ku£^e, or court
nobles of the imperial family, those of
the next order by the daimios or cour_
tiers, and those of the third order by
men selected from the samurai. This
arrangement threw the whole power of
the state into the hands of the Satsum?
Choshin, Tosa, and Hizen clans.

244

ASIA AND AFRICA IN THK NINETEENTH CENTURY.

The ex-shogun was greatly displeased
with this arrangement, and took up
arms to regain his lost power. He was
defeated in a three days' battle, and fled
to Yedo in an American steamer. See-
ing that further resistance was hopeless,
he surrendered to the imperial forces,
declared his resolution never again to
oppose the will of the mikado, and re-
tired to private life. This submission
completely re-established the authority
of the mikado throughout the empire,
and gave peace to the country.

Adopting New Ideas,

Up to this time the party of the mi-
kado had been the bitterest opponents
of the treaties negotiated by the shogun
with the foreign powers. There were
a few among them who had profoundly
studied the question, and had seen the
folly of their country in holding itself
aloof from the rest of the world. These
now set to work to promote the inter- |
course of Japan with the treaty powers, I
and found this no difficult task, as the {
leaders of the imperial party had by 1
this time become convinced of the im-
mense superiority of the foreign over
the native system of war. They also
feared that the foreign powers would
compel the empire by force to observe
the treaties made with the shogun, and
knew that Japan was in no condition to
offer a successful resistance.

They accordingly invited the repre-
sentatives of the foreign powers to a
':onference at Kioto. Many of the court
nobles had never seen a foreigner, and
upon beholding them at the conference
at once abandoned the prejudices they
had cherished against them. The treaties
were cordially renewed, the foreign
powers recognized the mikado as the

only rightful sovereign of Japan, and
the foundations were laid upon which
have been built up the intimate and
cordial relations which now exist be-
tween Japan and the states of Europe
and America. Foreign ideas and cus-
toms from this time made their way
steadily into the empire, and were rap-
idly adopted by the Japanese. Since
1 868 the character of Japanese civiliza-
tion has undergone a profound change.
The government, the army and navy,
and the finances are administered upon
3 European basis; the European dress
is driving out the old native costume ;
and large numbers of young men des-
tined for the public service are sent to
the schools of Europe and the United
States to be trained in the learning and
civilization of the western world. In
all these measures the young Emperor
Mutsuhito (the reigning mikado), who
came to the throne in 1867, has taken
an active part, and has constantly en-
deavored to promote the civilization of
his country and to render more inti-
mate its intercourse with the v^stern
nations.

Feudal System Destroyed.

The changes which took place in the
internal government of the empire after
the revolution of 1 868 were very rapid.
In 1 87 1 the emporer abolished the titles
of kuge and daimio (court and territorial
noble), and replaced them by that of
kuazokiL (noble families). This decree
deprived the great nobles of their terri-
torial fiefs, which were reclaimed by the
crown, and at one blow destroyed the
feudal system of Japan. In the same
year, in order to place himself more di-
rectly at the head of the new state of
affairs, the emperor removed his capital

ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

24f)

from the old sacred city of Kioto to the
great city of Yedo, the name of which
was changed to Tokio (western capital).
The government granted to the deposed
daimios one-tenth of their former in-
comes on condition of residing perma-
nently at Tokio. In December, 1871,
an embassy was sent to the nations of
Europe and America. Each was visited
in succession, and new treaties of com-
merce and friendship were negotiated.

In 1876 the empire took part in the
International Centennial Exhibition,
held at Philadelphia, in the United
States, and gave unmistakable evidence
in its superb display of its success in
the new career upon which it has en-
tered.

The completion of the translation of
the Bible into Japanese was celebrated
February 3, 1888. On February 11,

1889, a new constitution for the empire
was promulgated by the Mikado at
Tokio. Houses of lords and commons
were established, and religious liberty
and general freedom were granted to all
persons, one of the many evidences of
the enlightened policy which of late has
distinguished the government of the
country. New commercial treaties were
desired with the European powers, who
hesitated to grant the request ; one with
the United States was promptly signed.
No Oriental realm has made more rapid
strides in the last quarter of a century
than Japan.

The most important events in Japan
during the century were connected
with her war against China in 1894, a
full account of which appears in the
history of that empire and need not be
repeated here.

REPUBLICS IN SOUTH AFRICA.

NH of the earliest settlements in
South Africa was that of the
Dutch at the Cape of Good
Hope. In 1806 Great Britain
acquired their domain, following which
the Dutch emigrated in large numbers,
moving north and east. They acquired
by force of arms from the Zulus the
country known as Natal, where they
settled. The number of the Boers, as
they were called, who left the British
colonies was about 10,000. They or-
ganized a government, and 'n 1854 the
British guaranteed them ( jmplete in-
dependence.

The Boers also established a republic
known as the Transvaal, the independ-
ence of which was acknowledged in
1852. Here they have remained until
the present time. They have had the

name of being very exclusive and re-
fusing rights to foreigners who wished
to enter their country. In 1887 the
British attempted to take the country,
and for a while occupied it. In 1880
the Transvaal Boers threw off the Bri-
tish yoke and re-established the repub-
lic, after a conflict with the British, in
which the latter were defeated with
great loss.

Early in 1 896, a British company, with
possessions bordering on the Transvaal,
attempted to conquer the Boers. In this
attempt they were led by Dr. Jameson,
but his forces were signally defeated.
This disaster caused excitement through-
out England, especially as Germany ex-
pressed its sympathy with the Boers.

The state has immense latent wealth
in its minerals, for, in addition to the

246

ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.

numerous gold-fields, the deposits of sil-
ver, copper, and lead, iron, coal, cobalt,
and other metals and minerals, are suf-
ficent to show that nature has favored
the Transvaal beyond all African states.
The country is rich in corn and pasture
land. The climate is, as a rule, healthy,
and in some parts exceptionally bracing.
The number of English-speaking resi-
dents is fast increasing on account of
immigration.

In October, 1899, war broke out be-
tween the Transvaal and Great Britain,
the latter nation claiming that rights
guaranteed by treaty to the subjects of
other nations had been denied, and
foreigners were the victims of high-
handed oppression. Several bloody bat-
tles were fought between the Boers and
the English troops.

Republic of Liberia.

L/iberia is a small republican state of
West Africa, and occupies a part of
the coast of North Guinea. lycngth,
600 miles ; breadth interiorward, 50
miles. Monrovia is its capital, at the
mouth of St. Paul's River. The prin-
cipal exports are coffee, sugar, palm-oil>

camphor, indigo, ivory, and gold-dust.
The first settlement was formed by free
negro colonists from the United States,
at Cape Mesurado, in 1820. The colony
became an independent republic in 1847.
The constitution and government are
based upon the model of those of the
United States.

The Congo Free State has sprung out
of the discoveries of Stanley and the
explorations of the International Asso-
ciation, founded at Brussels for the
opening up to civilization of the Congo
and its tributaries. Its autonomy was
recognized during 1884 and 1885 by the
leading powers of Europe, and by the
United States, conditioned upon its
maintaining the principles of free trade.
There are twelve territorial divisions,
the capital being Boma.

The central government is at Brussels,
and consists of the king of the Bel-
gians as sovereign, and three depart-
mental chiefs. On the Congo there is
an Administrator-General and several
European administrators of stations and
districts. The rest of West Africa is
variously "protected" by England,
France, Germany, and Portugal.

PART III.

Famous Explorations and Discoveries.

CHAPTER XVII.
Voyages in the Polar World.

IN the year 1829 Captain John Ross,
with his nephew James, having
been furnished with sufficient
funds by a wealthy distiller named
Felix Booth, of London, undertook a
private expedition of discovery in a
small vessel called the Victory. Ross
proceeded down Prince Regent's Inlet
to the Gulf of Boothia, and wintered
on the eastern side of a land named by
him Boothia Felix. In the course of
exploring excursions during the sum-
mer months James Ross crossed the
land and discovered the position of the
north magnetic pole on the western side
of it, on June i, 1831. He also discov-
ered a land to the westward of Boothia
which he named King William Land,
and the northern shore of which he
examined.

The most northern point, opposite
the magnetic pole, was called Cape
Felix, and thence the coast trended
south-west to Victory Point. James
Ross was at Cape Felix on May 29, 1830.
The Rosses never could get their little
\essel out of its winter quarters. They
passed three winters there, and then fell
back on the stores at Fury Beach, where
they passed their fourth winter of 1832-
53. Eventually they were picked up by

a wlialer in Barrow Strait, and brought
home.

Great anxiety was naturally felt at
their prolonged absence, and in 1833,
Sir George Back, with Dr. Richard King
as a companion, set out by land in
search of the missing explorers. Win-
tering at the Great Slave Lake, he left
Fort Reliance on June 7, 1834, and de-
scended the Great Fish River, which is
obstructed by many falls in the course
of a rapid and tortuous course of 530
miles. The mouth was reached, when
the want of supplies obliged them to
return. In 1836 Sir George Back was
sent, at the suggestion of the Royal
Geographical Society, to proceed to Re-
pulse Bay in his ship, the Terror, and
then to cross an assumed isthmus and
examine the coast-line thence to the
mouth of the Great Fish River ; but the
ship was obliged to winter in the drift-
ing pack, and was brought back across
the Atlantic in a sinking condition on
account of damage caused by the ice.

The tracing of the polar shores of
America was completed by the Hud-
son's Bay Company's servants. In June
1837 Messrs. Simpson and Dease left
Chippewyan, reached the mouth of the
Mackenzie, and connected that position

247

248

VOYAGES IN THE POI.AR WORLD.

with point Barrow, which had been
discovered by the Blossom in 1826.

In 1839 Simpson passed Cape Turn-
again of Franklin, tracing the coast
eastward so as to connect with Back's
work at the mouth of the Great Fish
River. He landed at Montreal Island
in the mouth of that river, and then
advanced eastward as far as Castor and
Pollux river, his farthest eastern point.
On his return he travelled along the
north side of the channel, which is in
fact the south shore of the King Wil-
liam Island discovered by James Ross.
The south-western point of this Island
was named Cape Herschel, and there
jimpson built a cairn on August 26,

1839

Dr. Rae's Discoveries.

Very little more remained to be done
in order to complete the delineation of
the northern shores of the American
continent. This was entrusted to Dr.
John Rae, a Hudson's Bay factor, in
1846. He went in boats to Repulse
Bay, where he wintered in a stone hut
nearly on the Arctic Circle ; and he and
six Orkney men maintained themselves
on the deer they shot. During the
spring of 1 847 Dr. Rae explored on foot
the shores of a great gulf having 700
miles of coast-line. He thus connected
the work of Parry, at the mouth of Fury
and Hecla Strait, with the work of Ross
on the coast of Boothia, proving that
Boothia was part of the American con-
tinent.

. While the English were thus working
hard to solve some of the geographical
problems relating to Arctic America,
the Russians were similarly engaged in
Siberia. In 1821 Lieutenant Anjou
made a complete ' survey of the New
Siberia Islands, and came to the con-

clusion that it was not possible to ad-
vance far from them in a northerly
direction, owing to the thinness of the
ice and to open water within 20 or 30
miles.

Baron Wrangell prosecuted similar
investigations from the mouth of the
Kolyma between 1820 and 1823. He
made four journeys with dog sledges,
exploring the coast between Cape Tchel-
agskoi and the Kolyma, and making
attempts to extend his journeys to some
distance from the land. He was always
stopped by thin ice, and he received
tidings from a native chief of the exis-
tence of land at a distance of several
leagues to the northward.

In 1843 Middendorf was sent to ex-
plore the region which terminates in
Cape Tchelyuskin. He reached the
cape in the height of the short summer,
whence he saw open water and no ice
blink in any direction. The whole
arctic shore of Siberia had now beer
explored and delineated, but no vessel
had yet rounded the extreme northern
point, by sailing from the mouth of the
Yenisei to that of the Lena. When
that feat was achieved the problem of
the north-east passage would be solved,

Story of Franklin.

The success of Sir James Ross's Ant-
arctic expedition and the completion of
the northern coast-line of America by
the Hudson's Bay Company's servants
gave rise in 1845 to a fresh attempt to
make the passage from Lancaster Sound
to Behring Strait. The story of this
unhappy expedition of Sir John Frank-
lin, in the Erebus and Terror, is one of
the most thrilling in Arctic exploration.

To understand clearly the nature of
the obstacle which finally stopped Sir

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

249

John Franklin, and which also stopped
Sir Edward Parry in his first voyage, it
is necessary to note that westward of
Melville and Baring Islands, northward
of the western part of the American
coast, and northward of the channel
leading from Smith Sound, there is a
vast unknown space, the ice which en-
cumbers it never having been traversed
by any ship. All navigators who have
skirted along its edge describe the stu-
pendous thickness and massive propor-
tions of the vast flows with which it is
packed.

This accumulation of ice of enormous
thickness, to which Sir George Nares
has given the name of a " Palseocrystic
Sea," arises from the absence of direct
communication between this portion of
the north polar region and the warm
waters of the Atlantic and Pacific.
Behring Strait is the only vent in a
south-westerly direction, and that chan-
nel is so shallow that the heavy ice
grounds outside it. In other direc-
tions the channels leading to Baffin's
Bay are narrow and tortuous. In one
place only is there a wide and straight
lead. The heavy polar ice flows south-
east between Melville and Baring Is-
lands, down what is now called M'Clin-
tock Channel, and impinges on the
north-west coast of the King William
Land discovered by James Ross.

The Expedition Halted.

It was this branch from the palaeo-
crystic sea which finally stopped the
progress of Franklin's expedition. On
leaving the winter-quarters at Beechey
Island in 1846, Franklin found a chan-
nel leading south, along the western
shore of the land of North Somerset
discovered by Parry in 18 19. If he

could reach the channel on the Ameri-
can coast, he knew that he would be able
to make his way along to Behring
Strait. This channel leading south,
now called Peel Sound, pointed directly
to the south. He sailed down it towards
King William Island, with land on both
sides.

But directly they passed the southern
point of the western land, and were no
longer shielded by it, the great palseo-
crystic stream from Melville Island was
fallen in with, pressing on King William
Island. It was impassable. The only
possibility of progress would have been
by rounding the eastern side of King
William Island, but its insularity was
then unknown.

Anxiety for Franklin.

It was not until 1848 that anxiety
began to be felt about the Franklin ex-
pedition. In the spring of that year Sir
James Ross was sent with two ships, the
Enterprise and Investigator, by way of
lyancaster Sound. He wintered at Leo-
pold Harbor, near the north-east point
of North Devon. In the spring he made
a long sledge journey with Lieutenant
M'Clintock along the northern and west
ern coasts of North Somerset.

On the return of the Ross expedition
without any tidings, the country became
thoroughly alarmed. An extensive plan
of search was organized — the Enterprise
and Investigator under CoUison and
M'Clure proceeding by Behring Strait
while the Assistance and Resolute with
two steam tenders, the Pioneer and In-
trepid, sailed May 3, 1850, to renew the
search by Barrow Strait, under Captain
Austin. Two brigs, the Lady Franklin
and Sophia, under Captain Penny, a
very energetic and able whaling captain,

250

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

were sent by the same route. He had
with him Dr. Sutherland, a naturalist,
who did much valuable scientific work.

Found His Winter Quarters.

Austin and Penny entered Barrow
Strait, and Franklin's winter quarters
of 1845-46 was discovered at Beechey
Island ; but there was no record of any
kind indicating- the direction taken by
the ships. Stopped by the ice, Austin's
expedition wintered (1850-51) in the
pack off Griffith Island, and Penny found
refuge in a harbor on the south coast of
Cornwallis Island. Austin, who had
been with Parry during his third voyage,
was an admirable organizer. His ar-
rangements for passing the winter were
carefully thought out and answered per-
fectly. In concert with Penny he
planned a thorough and extensivesystem
of search by means of sledge travelling
in the spring; and Lieutenant M'Clin-
tock superintended every minute de-
tail of this part of the work with un-
failing forethought and consummate
skill.

Penny undertook the search by Wel-
lington Channel. M'Clintock advanced
to Melville Island, marching over 770
miles in eighty-one days ; Captain Om-
manuey and Sherard Osborn passed
southward and discovered Prince of
Wales Island. Lieutenant Brown exam-
ined the western shore of Peel Sound.
The search was exhaustive ; but, except
the winter quarters at Beechey Island,
no record, no sign was discovered.

The absence of any record made Cap-
tain Austin doubt whether Franklin had
ever gone beyond Beechey Island. So
he also examined the entrance of Jones
Sound, the next inlet from Baffin's Bay
Qorth of Lancaster Sound, on his way

home, and returned to England in the
autumn of 1 85 1 . This was a thoroughly
well-conducted expedition — especially
as regards the sledge travelling, which
M' Clintock brought to great perfection.
So far as the search for Franklin -vas
concerned, nothing remained to be done
west or north of Barrow Strait.

In 185 1 the Prince Albert schooner
was sent out by Lady Franklin, unde
Captain Kennedy, with Lieutenant Bel-
lot of the French navy as second. They
wintered on the east coast of North
Somerset, and in the spring of 1852 the
gallant Frenchman, in the course of a
long sledging journey, discovered Bellot
Strait separating North Somerset from
Boothia — this proving that the Boothia
coast facing the strait was the northern
extremity of the continent of America.

Three Traveling Parties.

The Enterprise and Investigator sailed
from England in January, 1850, but ac-
cidentally parted company before they
reached Behring Strait. On May 6,
185 1, the Enterprise passed the strait,
and rounded Point Barrow on the 25th.
Collinson then made his way up the
narrow Prince of Wales Strait, between
Baring and Prince Albert Island, and
reached Princess Royal Islands, where
M'Clure had been the previous year.
Returning southwards, the Enterprise
wintered in a sound in Prince Albert
Island. Three travelling parties were
dispatched in the spring of 1852 — one
to trace Prince Albert Island in a south-
erly direction, while the others explored
Prince of Wales Strait, one of them
reaching Melville Island.

In September, 1852, the ship was free,
and Collinson pressed eastward along the
coast of North America, reaching Cam-

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

251

bridge Bay September 26th, where the
second winter was passed. In the
spring he examined the shores of Vic-
toria Land. He was within a few miles
of Point Victory, where the fate of
Franklin would have been ascertained.
The Enterprise again put to sea on
August 5, 1853, ^iid returned westward
along the American coast, until she was
stopped by ice and obliged to pass a
third winter at Camden Bay. In 1854
this most remarkable voyage was com-
pleted, and Captain Collinson brought
the Enterprise back to England.

Discovered North- West Passage.

Meanwhile M'Clure, in the Investi-
gator, had passed the winter of 1850-51
at the Princess Royal Islands, only
thirty miles from Barrow Strait. In
October M'Clure ascended a hill whence
he could see the frozen surface of Barrow
Strait, which was navigated by Parry
in 1819-20. Thus, like the survivors of
Franklin's crews when they reached
Cape Herschel, M'Clure discovered a
north-west passage. It was impossible
to reach it, for the branch of the palaeo-
crystic ice which stopped Franklin off
King William Land was athwart their
northward course.

So as soon as he was free in 185 1,
M'Clure turned southwards, round the
southern extreme of Baring Island,
and commenced to force a passage to the
northward between the western shore of
that land and the enormous fields of ice
which pressed upon it. The cliffs rose
up like walls on one side, while on the
other the stupendous ice of the palaso-
crystic sea rose from the water to a level
with the Investigator's lower yards.

After many hair-breath escapes Mc-
Clure took refuge in a bay on the !

northern shore of Bank's Land, which
he named "The Bay of God's Mercy."
Here the Investigator remained, never
to move again. After the winter of
1851-52 M'Clure made a journey across
the ice to Melville Island, and left a
record at Parry's winter harbor. Abund-
ant supplies of musk ox were fortun-
ately obtained, but a third winter had
to be faced. In the spring of 1853
M'Clure was preparing to abandon the
ship with all hands, and attempt, like
Franklin's crews, to reach the American
coast. But succor providentially ar-
rived in time.

The Hudson's Bay Company assisted
in the search for Franklin. In 1848 Sir
John Richardson and Dr. Rae examined
the American coast from the mouth of
the Mackenzie to that of the Copper-
mine. In 1849 and 1850 Rae continued
the search ; and by a long sledge journey
in the spring of 185 1, and a boat voyage
in the summer, he examined the shores
of Wollaston and Victoria Lands, which
were afterwards explored by Captain
Collinson in the Enterprise.

New Expedition.

In 1852 the British Government re-
solved to dispatch another expedition
by Lancaster Sound. Austin's four
vessels were recommissioned, and the
North Star was sent out as a depot ship
to Beechey Island. Sir Edward Belcher
commanded the Assistance, with the
Pioneer under Sherard Osborn as steam
tender. He went up Wellington Chan- -
nel to Northumberland Bay, where he
wintered, passing a second winter lower
down in Wellington Channel, and then
abandoning his ships and coming home
in 1854. But Sherard Osborn and Com-
mander Richards did good work. I'hey

252

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORI.D.

made sledge journeys to Melville Island
and thus discovered the northern side
of the Parry group. Captain Kellett
received command of the Resolute, with
M'Clintock in the steam tender In-
trepid.

Among Kellett's officers were the best
of Austin's sledge travellers, M'Clin-
tock, Mecham, and Vesey Hamilton, so
that good work was sure to be done.
George Nares, the future leader of the
expedition of 1874-75, was also on board
the Resolute. Kellett passed onwards
to the westward and passed the winter
of 1852-53 at Melville Island. Dur-
ing the autumn Mecham discovered
M' Clure's record, and the safety of her
crew was consequently assured, for it
was only necessary to send a message
across the strait between two fixed posi-
tions. This service was performed by
L/ieutenant Pirn early in the following
spring.

The officers and crew of the Investi-
gator, led by M'Clure, arrived safely on
board the Resolute on June 17, 1853,
and they reached England in the fol-
lowing year. They not only discovered
but traversed a north-west passage,
though not in the same ship, and partly
by travelling over ice. For this great
feat M'Clure received the honor of
knighthood — a reward of fifty thousand
dollars being voted to himself, the other
officers, and the crew, by a vote of the
House of Commons.

Long Sledge Journey.

The travelling parties of Kellett's ex-
pedition, led by M'Clintock, Mecham
and Vesey Hamilton, completed the
discovery of the northern and western
sides of Melville Island, and the whole
outline of the large Island of Prince

Patrick, still further to the westward.
M'Clintock was away from the ship
with his sledge party for one hundred
and five days and travelled over 1,328
miles. Mecham was away ninety-four
days and travelled over 1,163 miles.
Sherard Osborn, in 1853, was away
ninety-seven days and travelled over
935 miles. The Resolute was obliged
to winter in the pack in 1853-54, and
in the spring of 1854 Mecham made
a most remarkable journey in the
hope of obtaining news of Captain Col-
linson at the Princess Royal Islands.
Leaving the ship on April 3d, he was
absent seventy days, out of which there
were sixty-one and a half days travel-
ling. The distance gone over was 1,336
statute miles. The average rate of the
homeward journey was twenty-three
and a half miles a day, the average time
of travelling each day nine hours tweu"
ty-five minutes. This journey is with-
out parallel in arctic records.

Ships Abandoned.

Fearing detention for another winter,
Sir Edward Belcher ordered all the
ships to be abandoned in the ice, the
officers and crews being taken home in
the North Star, and in the Phoenix and
Talbot which had come out from Eng-
land to communicate. They reached
home in October, 1854. In 1852 Captain
Inglefield, R.N., had made a voyage up
Baffin's Bay in the Isabel as far as the
entrance of Smith Sound. In 1853 and
1854 he came out in the Phoenix to
communicate with the North Star at
Beechey Island.

The drift of the Resolute was a re-
markable proof of the direction of the
current out of Barrow Strait. She was
abandoned on May 14, 1854. On Sep-

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

253

tember lo, 1855, an American whaler
sighted the Resolute in 6']'^ North
latitude, about twenty miles from Cape
Mercy, in Davis Strait. She was
brought into an American port, and
eventually presented to the British Gov-
ernment. She had drifted nearly a
thousand miles.

In 1853 Dr. Rae was employed to con-

in April and May. He succeeded in
connecting the discoveries of Simpson
with those of James Ross, and thus
established the fact that King- William
Land was an island.

Rae also brought home tidings and
relics of Franklin's expedition gathered
from the Eskimo; and this led to the
expedition of M'Clintock in the Fox in

REI,ICS OP franklin'

nect a few points which would quite
complete the examination of the coast
of America, and establish the insularity
of King William lyaud. He went up
Chesterfield Inlet and the River Ouoich
for a considerable distance, wintering
with eight men at Repulse Bay in a
snow house.- Venison and fish were
abundant. In 1854 he set out on a
journey which occupied fifty-six days

8 POI.AR EJXPEDITION.

search of Franklin. While M' Clintock
was prosecuting his exhausting search
over part of the west coast of Boothia,
the whole of the shores of King Wil-
liam Island, the mouth of the Great
Fish River, and Montreal Island, Allen
Young completed the discovery of the
southern side of Prince of Wales Island.
The Fox returned to England in the
autumn of 1859.

254

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

The catastrophe of Sir John Frank-
lin's expedition led to 7,000 miles of
coast line being discovered, and to a
vast extent of unknown country being
explored, securing very considerable
additions to geographical knowledge.
Much attention was also given to the
collection of information, and the scien-
tific results of the various search expe-
ditions were considerable.

The catastrophe also afforded a warn-
ing which would render any similar dis-
aster quite inexcusable. If arrange-
ments are always carefully made for a
retreat beforehand, if a depot ship is
always left within reach of the advanc-
ing expedition as well as of the outer
world, and if there is annual communi-
cation, with positive rules for depositing
records, no such catastrophe can ever
happen again.

The Search for Franklin.

The American nation was first led
to take an interest in polar research
through a very noble and generous feel-
ing of sympathy for Franklin and his
brave companions. Mr. Grinnell, of
New York, gave practical expression to
this feeling. In 1850 he equipped two
vessels, the Advance and Rescue, to aid
in the search, commanded by Lieuten-
ants De Haven and Grifiith, and accom-
panied by Dr. Kane. They reached
Beechey Island on August 27, 1850, and
assisted in the examination of Frank-
lin's winter quarters, but returned with-
out wintering.

I In 1853 Dr. Kane, in the little brig
Advance of 120 tons, undertook to
lead an American expedition up Smith
Sound, the most northern outlet from
Bafiin's Bay. The Advance reached
Smith Sound on August 7, 1853, but

was stopped by ice only seventeen miles
from the entrance. He described the
coast as consisting of precipitous cliffs,
800 to 1200 feet high, and at their base
there was a belt of ice about eighteen
feet thick, resting on the beach. Dr.
Kane adopted the Danish name of ' ' ice-
foot ' ' {is fod) for this permanent frozen
ridge. He named the place of his
winter-quarters Van Rensselaer Harbor.

Immense Glacier.

In the spring some interesting work
was done. A great glacier was dis-
covered and named the Humboldt
glacier, with a sea face forty-five miles
long. Dr. Kane's steward, Morton,
crossed the foot of this glacier with a
team of dogs, and reached a point of
land beyond named Cape Constitution.
But sickness and want of means pre-
vented much from being done by travel-
ling parties. Scurvy attacked the whole
party during the second winter, al-
though the Eskimo supplied them with
fresh meat and were true friends in
need. On May 17, 1855, Dr. Kane
abandoned the brig, and reached the
Danish settlement of Upernivik on Au-
gust 6th. Lieutenant Hartstene, who
was sent out to search for Kane, reached
Van Rensselaer Harbor after he had
gone, but took the retreating crew on
board on his return voyage.

On July 10, i860, Dr. Hayes, who
had served with Kane, sailed from Bos-
ton for Smith Sound, in the schooner
United States, of 1 30 tons and a crew of
fifteen men. His object was to follow
up the line of research opened by Dr.
Kane. He wintered at Point Foulke,
about ten miles from Cape Alexander,
which forms the eastern portal of Smith
Sound. Dr. Hayes crossed Smith Souud

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

255

in the spring with dog-sledges, but his
observations are not to be depended on,
and it is very uncertain how far he ad-
vanced northward on the other side. He
returned to Boston on October 23, 1861.
Charles Hall, of Cincinnati, was led
to become an arctic explorer through
his deep interest in the search for

King William Island. He heard the
story of the retreat and of the wreck of
one of the ships from the Eskimo ; he
was told that seven bodies were buried
at Todd Island ; and he brought home
some bones which are believed to be
those of Lieutenant Le Vescomte of the
Erebus.

KANE AND HIS COMPANIONS BRAVING THE COLD.

Franklin. In his first journey, 1860-62,
lie discovered the interesting remains of
a stone house which Sir Martin Fro-
bisher built on the Countess of Warwick
Island in 1578. In his second expedi-
tion, 1864-69, Hall, by dint of the
most unwearied perseverance at length
reached the line of the retreat of the
Franklin survivors, at Todd's Island
and Peffer river, on the south coast of

Finally, in 1 871, he took the Polaris
for 250 miles up the channel which
leads northwards from Smith Sound.
The various parts of this long channel
are called Smith Sound, Kane Basin,
Kennedy Channel, and Robeson Chan-
nel. The Polaris was beset on 30th
August ; and her winter quarters were in
81° 38' N., called Thank God Bay.
The death of Hall followed and the

256

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

subsequent fortunes of the expedition
were of the most perilous description.

Between 1858 and 1872 the Swedes
sent seven expeditions to Spitzbergen
and two to Greenland. All returned
with valuable scientific results. That
of 1864 under Nordenskiold and Duner
made observations at eighty different
places on the Spitzbergen shores, and
fixed the heights of numerous moun-
tains. In 1868, in an iron steamer, the
Sophia, the Swedes attained a latitude
of 81° 42' N. on the meridain of 18° E.,
during the month of September. In
1872 an expedition consisting of the
Polhem steamer and brig Gladen, com-
manded by Professor Nordenskiold and
Lieutenant Palander, wintered in Mus-
sel Bay, on the northern shore of Spitz-
bergen. In the spring an important
sledging journey of sixty days' dura-
tion was made over North-Bast Land.
The expedition was in some distress as
regards provisions owing to two vessels,
which were to have returned, having
been forced to winter. But in the sum-
mer of 1873 they were visited by Mr.
Leigh Smith, in his yacht Diana, who
supplied them with fresh provisions.

Pressing Northward.

Dr. Petermann of Gotha urged his
countrymen to take their share in the
noble work of polar discovery, and at
his own risk he fitted out a small vessel
called the Germania, which sailed from
Bergen in May, 1868, under the com-
mand of Captain Koldewey. His cruise
extended to Hinlopen Strait in Spitz-
bergen, but was merely tentative ; and
in 1870 Baron von Heuglin with Count
Zeil explored the Stor Fjord in a Nor-
wegian schooner, and also examined
Walter Thy men's Strait. After the re-

turn of the Germania in 1 868 a regular
expedition was organized under the
command of Captain Koldewey, provi-
sioned for two years. It consisted of
the Germania, a screw steamer of 140
tons, and the brig Hansa commanded
by Captain Hegemann.

Crushed in the Ice.

Lieutenant Payer, the future discov-
erer of Franz Josef Land, gained his
first arctic experience on board the
Germania. The expedition sailed from
Bremen on the 15th June, 1869, its des-
tination being the east coast of Green-
land. But the Hansa got separated
from her consort and crushed in the ice.
The crew built a house of patent fuel
on the floe, and in this strange abode
they passed their Christmas. In two
months the current had carried them
south for 400 miles. By May they had
drifted iioo miles on their ice-raft, and
finally, on June 14, 1870, they arrived at
the Moravian mission station of Fried-
riksthal, to the west of Cape Farewell.

Fairer fortune attended the Germania.
She sailed up the east coast of Green-
land, and eventually wintered at the
Pendulum Islands of Clavering. In
March, 1870, a travelling party set out,
under Koldewey and Payer, and reached
a distance of 100 miles from the ship to
the northward, when want of provisions
compelled them to return. A grim
cape, named after Prince Bismarck,
marked the northern limit of their dis-
coveries. As soon as the vessel was free,
a deep branching inlet was discovered
stretching for a long distance into the
interior of Greenland. Along its shore
are peaks 7,000 and 14,000 feet high.
The expedition returned to Bremen on
September 11, 1870.

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

257

Lieutenant Payer was resolved to con-
tinue in the path of polar discovery.
He and a naval oflficer named Weyprecht
freighted a Norwegian schooner called
the Isbjorn, and examined the edge of
the ice between Spitzbergen and Nova
Zembla, in the summer of 187 1. Their
observations led them to select the
route by the north end of Nova Zembla
with a view to making the north-east
passage. It was to be an Austria-Hun-
garian expedition, and the idea was
seized with enthusiasm by the whole
empire. Weyprecht was to command
the ship, while Julius Payer conducted
the sledge parties.

A Winter of Adventures.

The steamer Tegethoff, of 300 tons,
was fitted out in the Elbe, and left
Tromso on July 14, 1872. The season
was exceptionally severe, and the vessel
was closely beset near Cape Nassau, at
the northern end of Nova Zembla, in
the end of August. The summer of 1 873
found her still a close prisoner drifting,
not with a current, but in the direction
of the prevailing wind. At length, on
the 3 1st August, a mountainous country
was sighted about 14 miles to the north.
In October the vessel was drifted within
three miles of an island lying off the
main mass of land . Payer landed on it.
It was named after Count Wilczek, one
of the warmest friends of the expedi-
tion.

Here the second winter was passed.
Bea'-s were very numerous and as many
as sixty-seven were killed, their meat
proving to be a most efficient remedy
against scurvy. In March, 1874, Payer
made a preliminary sledge journey in
intense cold. On 24th March he started
for a more prolonged journey of thirty
17

days. Payer found that the newly dis-
covered country equalled Spitzbergen
in extent, and consisted of two or more
large masses — Wilzcek Land to the east,
Zichy Land to the west, intersected by
numerous fords and skirted by a large
number of islands. A wide channel,
named Austria Sound, separates the two
main masses of land, where Rawlinson
Sound forks oflf to the north-east.

Perilous Voyage.

The mountains attain a height of
2000 to 3000 feet, the depressions be-
tween them being covered with gla-
ciers ; and all the islands even are cov-
ered with a glacial cap. The whole
country was named Franz-Josef Land.
Payer returned to the Tegethoff on 24th
April ; and a third journey was under-
taken to explore a large island named
after McClintock. It then became ne-
cessary to abandon the ship and attempt
a retreat in boats. This perilous voy-
age was commenced on 20th May.
Three boats stored with provisions were
placed on sledges. It was not until
I4tli August that they reached the edge
of the pack and launched the boats.

Eventually they were picked up by a
Russian schooner and arriv^ed at Vardo
on September 3, 1874. This great
achievement is one of the most impor-
tant connected with the north polar re-
gion that has been made in the nine-
teenth century, and will probably lead
in due time to still further discoveries
in the same direction.

One of the most interesting problems
connected with the physical geography
of the polar regions is the history and
actual condition of the vast interior of
Greenland, which is generally believed
to be one enormous glacier. In 1867

:i58

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

Mr. Edward Whymper carefully plan-
ned an expedition to solve the question,
and went to Greenland, accompanied by
Dr. Robert Brown ; but the season was
too late and progress was stopped, after
going a short distance, by the breaking
down of the dog-sledges. But Dr.
Brown made most valuable geological
and natural history collections, chiefly
in the neighborhood of Disco, and still
more valuable observations, the publi-
cation of which has added considerably
to our knowledge. Dr. Rink, for many
years royal inspector of South Green-
land and the most distinguished autlior-
ity on all Greenlandic questions, has
also visited the inland ice, and has given
his stores of information to the world.

Captain Nare's Expedition.

The gallant enterprises of other coun-
tries rekindled the zeal of England for
arctic discovery ; and in October, 1 874,
the prime minister announced that an
expedition would be despatched in the
following year. The route by Smith
Sound was selected because it gave the
certainty of exploring a previously un-
known area of considerable extent, be-
cause it yielded tlie best prospect of
valuable scientific results, and because
it offered, with proper precautions, rea-
sonable security for a safe retreat in case
of disaster.

Two powerful screw steamers, the
Alert and Discovery, were selected for
the service, and Captain Nares was se-
lected as leader. Commander Mark-
ham, who had made a cruise up Baffin's
Bay and Barrow Strait in a whaler dur-
ing the previous year. Lieutenant
Aldrich, an accomplished surveyor, and
Captain Feilden, as naturalist, were
also in the Alert. The Discovery was

commanded by Captain Stephenson,
with Lieutenant Beaumont as first
lieutenant. The expedition left Ports-
mouth on the 29th May, 1875, and en-
tered Smith Sound in the last days of

July.

After much difficulty with the drift-
ing ice Lady Franklin Bay was reached,
where the Discovery was established in
winter-quarters. The Alert passed on-
wards, and reached the edge of the
palaeocrysticsea, the ice-floes being from
80 to 100 feet in thickness. Leaving
Robeson Channel, the vessel made pro-
gress between the land and the ground-
ed floe pieces, and passed the winter of?
the open coast and facing the great
polar pack. Autumn travelling parties
were despatched in September and Octo-
ber to lay out depots ; and during the
winter a complete scheme was matured
for the examination of as much of the
unknown area as possible, by the com-
bined efforts of sledging parties from
the two ships, in the ensuing sprin;^.
The parties started on April 3, 1876

Valuable Discoveries.

Captain Markham with Lieutenant
Parr advanced, in the face of almost in-
surmountable difficulties, over the polar
pack to the high latitude of 83° 20'
26'' N. Lieutenant Aldrich explored
the coast-line to the westward, facing
the frozen polar ocean, for a distance of
220 miles. Lieutenant Beaumont made
discoveries of great interest along the
northern coast of Greenland. The par-
ties were attacked by scurvy, which,
while increasing the difficulty and
hardships of the work a hundredfold,
also enhanced the devoted heroism of
these gallant explorers. Captain Feilden
was indefatigable in making collections,

I

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

259

and was zealously assisted by all the
officers.

The expedition returned to England
in October, 1876. The Alert reached
the highest northern latitude ever at-
tained by any ship, and wintered
further north than any ship had ever
wintered before. The results of the
expedition were the discovery of 3CX)
miles of new coast-line , the examina-
tion of this part of the frozen polar
ocean, a series of meteorological, mag-
netic, and tidal observations at two
points farther north than any such ob-
servations had ever been taken before,
and large geological and natural history
oUections.

Compelled to Return.

In the same year, 1875, Sir Allen
Young undertook a voyage in his steam
yacht, the Pandora, to attempt to force
his way down Peel Sound to the mag-
netic pole, and if possible to make the
north-west passage by rounding the
eastern shore of King William Island.
The Pandora entered Peel Sound on
August 29, 1875, and proceeded down
it much farther than any vessel had
gone before since it was passed by
Franklin's two ships in 1846. Sir Allen
sighted Cape Bird, at the northern side
of the western entrance of Bellot Strait.
But here an ice-barrier right across the
channel barred his progress, and he was
obliged to retrace his steps, returning
to England on October 16, 1875. In
the following year Sir Allen Young
made another voyage in the Pandora
to the entrance of Smith Sound.

In 1879 an enterprise was undertaken
in the United States, with the object of
throwing further light on the sad his-
tory of the retreat of the oflficers and

men of Sir John Franklin's expedition,
by examining the west coast of King
William Island in the summer, when
the snow is off the ground. The party
consisted of Lieutenant Schwatka of
the United States army and three
others. Wintering near the entrance
of Chesterfield Inlet in Hudson's Bay,
they set out overland for the estuary of
the Great Fish River, assisted by Eski-
mo and dogs, on April i, 1879.

Great Herd of Reindeer.

They only took one month's provi-
sions, their main reliance being upon
the game afforded by the region to be
traversed. The party obtained, during
the journeys out and home, no less than
five hundred and twenty-two reindeer.
After collecting various stories from
the Eskimo at Montreal Island and
at an inlet west of Cape Richardson,
Schwatka crossed over to Cape Her-
schel on King William Island in June.
He examined the western shore of the
island with the greatest care for relics
of Sir John Franklin's parties, as far as
Cape Felix, the northern extremity.

The return journey was commenced
in November by ascending the Great
Fish River for some distance and then
marching over the intervening region
to Hudson's Bay. The cold of the
winter months in this country is
oftentimes intense, the thermometer
falling as low as 70° below zero — so
that the return journey was most re-
markable, and reflects the highest credit
on Lieutenant Schwatka and his com-
panions. As regards the search little
was left to be done after M'Clintock,
but some graves were found, as well as
a medal belonging to Lieutenant Irving
of H. M. S. Terror, and some bones

260

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

believed to have been his, which were
brought home and interred at Edin-
burgh.

Mr. Gordon Bennett, the proprietor
of the New York Herald^ having re-
solved to despatch an expedition of
discovery at his own expense by way
of Behring Strait, the Pandora was
purchased from Sir Allen Young, and
rechristened the Jeannette. lyieutenant
De Long of the United States navy was
appointed to command, and it was made
a national undertaking by special Act
of Congress, the vessel being placed
under martial law and officered from
the navy.

The Jeannette sailed from San Fran-
cisco on July 8, 1879, and was last seen
steaming towards Wrangell Land on
the 3d of September. This land had
been seen by Captain Kellett, in H. M.
S. Herald on August 17, 1879, ^^^ no
one had landed on it, and it was shown
on the charts by a long dotted line.

Searching Party.

The Jeannette v/as provisioned for
three years, but as no tidings had been
received of her up to 1881, two steam-
ers were sent up. Behring Strait in
search. One of these, the Rodgers,
under Lieutenant Berry, anchored in a
good harbor on the south coast of Wran-
gell Land on the 26th August 1881.
The land was explored by the officers
of the Rodgers and found to be an
island about 70 miles long by 28, with
a ridge of hills traversing it east and
west, the 71st parallel running along
its southern shore.

Lieutenant Berry then proceeded to
examine the ice to the northward, and
attained a higher latitude by 21 miles
than had ever been reached before on

the Behring Strait meridian No news
was obtained of the Jeannette, but soon
afterwards melancholy tidings arrived
from Siberia. After having been beset
in heavy pack ice for twenty-two
months, the Jeannette was crushed and
sunk on the 12th June 1881.

Separated in a Gale.

The officers and men dragged their
boats over the ice to an island which
was named Bennett Island, where they
landed on the 29th July. They reached
one of the New Siberia Islands on the
loth September, and on the 12th they
set out for the mouth of the Lena. But
in the same evening the three boats
were separated in a gale of wind. A
boat's crew with Mr, Melville, the en-
gineer, reached Irkutsk, and Mr. Mel-
ville set out in search of Lieutenant
De Long and his party, who had also
landed. The other boat was lost. Event-
ually Melville discovered the dead bodies
of De Long and two of his crew on
March 23, 1883. They had perished
from exhaustion and want of food.
The Rodgers was burnt in its winter
quarters, and one of the officers, Mr.
Gilder, made a hazardous journey home-
wards through north-east Siberia.

On September 18, 1875, Lieutenant
Weyprecht, one of the discoverers of
Franz-Joseph Land, read a thoughtful
and carefully prepared paper before a
large meeting of German naturalists at
Gratz on the scientific results to be
obtained from polar research and the
best means of securing them. He urged
the importance of establishing a num-
ber of stations within or near the Arctic
Circle, in order to record complete
series of synchronous meteorological
and magnetic observations.

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

261

I^ieutenant Weyprecht did not live I at another at St. Petersbunrin r«S, a
to see his suggestions carried into exe- it was decided that elch^. i f.

.ution, bnt they bore frnit in dne ti.e. | establish fnf ^rl^f sta^s th^re

. BRILLIANT AURORA IN ThB POLAR SEA.

representeT^r"""- ."^ ^""^^ ""^ I ^^^^^'^-^^^ observations should be
ar wamhtirg m 1879, and | project was matured and executed.

262

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD.

The American stations commenced
work in 1882. I^ieutenant Greely's
party consisted of two other lieutenants,
of twenty sergeants and privates of the
United States army, and Dr. Pavy, an
enthusiastic explorer who had been
educated in France, and had passed the
previous winter among the Eskimo of
Greenland. On August 11, 1881, the
steamer Proteus conveyed Lieutenant
Greely and his party to Lady Franklin
Bay during an exceptionally favorable
season ; a house was built at the Dis-
cover's winter-quarters, and they were
left with two years' provisions. The
regular series of observations was at
once commenced, and two winters were
passed without accident. Travelling
parties were also sent out in the sum-
mer, dogs having been obtained at
Disco.

Lieutenant Lockwood made a jour-
ney along the north coast of Greenland,
and reached a small island. Dr. Pavy
and another went a short distance be-
yond the winter-quarters of the Alert,
and a trip was made into the interior
of Grinnell Land. But all this region
had already been explored and exhaus-
tively examined by the English expe-
dition in 1875-76.

Greely Makes a Start.

As no successor arrived in the sum-
mer of 1883 — though relieving vessels
were despatched both in 1882 and 1883
— Lieutenant Greely started from Lady
Franklin Bay with his men on the 9th
of August, expecting to find a vessel
in Smith Sound.

On the 2 1 St of October they were
obliged to encamp at Cape Sabine, on
the western shore of Smith Sound, and
build a hut for wintering. A few

depots were found, which had been left
by Sir George Nares and Lieutenant
Beebe, but all was exhausted before the
spring. Then came a time of inde-
scribable misery and acute suffering.
The poor fellows began to die of actual
starvation ; and when the relieving
steamers Thetis and Bear reached Cape
Sabine, Lieutenant Greely and six
suflfering companions were found just
alive.

If the simple and necessary precau-
tion had been taken of stationing a
depot ship in a good harbor at the
entrance of Smith Sound, in annual
communication with Greely on one
side and with America on the other,
there would have been no disaster.

Dr. Nansen in Greenland.

The attention of explorers and scien-
tific men was turned towards Green-
land, as the knowledge of the interior
of that country was very meagre. In
1886 Lieutenant Robert E. Peary vis-
ited that island in quest of scientific
information. The southern part of the
island was crossed on snow shoes from
east to west by Dr. Nansen, the famous
Norwegian explorer. Peary returned
to Greenland in 1891, with a few at-
tendants, and making McCormick Bay
a base of operations, set out the follow-
ing spring, accompanied by only a
single companion, on a journey with
sledges through the northern part of
the island.

His journey of 650 miles was a re-
markable feat considering the great
difiiculties he encountered. He reached
the north-east coast of Greenland, but
further progress was cut off by an area
of broken stones impassable to his
sledges. Peary made another journey

VOYAGES IN TUB POLAR WORLD.

263

m the same direction in 1895, but failed
to advance beyond the point gained by
his previous expedition.

Dr. Nansen, already mentioned, con-
ceived the idea of reaching the pole by
the strong ocean current that is sup-
posed to cross the polar sea. For his
expedition he had a ship constructed,
so strong as to be able to offer foniJd-
able resistance to the ice, and so built
that '^reat pressure would lift it to tho
top of the ice-floe. Tl ^ intrepid ex-
plorer set out in this vessel, the Fram,
in June, 1893, and proceeded to New
Siberia Islands. Here he anchored his
ship to an ice-floe, and waited to see if
the current would drift the vessel across
the polar sea. It is needless to state
that his expectations were not realized.

Great Explorer's Return.

For three years no tidings came from
Nansen and his intrepid crew. They
appeared to have gone out in the mys-
terious darkness that v^eils the polar
world, with little prospect of ever re-
turning or leaving any tidings of their
fate. But suddenly the world was
stirred by the information that the
great explorer had returned from his
perilous voyage.

Although Dr. Nansen did not accom-
plish his object, his vessel floated into
a higher latitude than had ever been
reached before by 200 miles ; he was then
300 miles from the point farthest north.
Here his vessel turned southward and
drifted in the opposite direction. In
March, 1895, he left the Fram because
of the slow progress made, and began
a journey north with one companion.
After struggling for a long time against
many obstacles he was compelled to
relinquisli his effort and return.

With his companion, Joiiansen, he
finally arrived at Franz Joseph Land,
where they spent the winter of 1895-96,
living on the flesh of walruses and
bears which they succeeded in captur-
ing. Meanwhile, in 1894, an English
explorer, Frederick G. Jackson, visited
Franz Joseph Land, where he remained
three years, carefully exploring it dur-
ing this time. In the spring Dr. Jack-
son met Nansen and his friend, and it
was through nim that the great Nor-
wegian explorer was rescued and suc-
ceeded in returning to his native land.
His exploit was considered one of the
most remarkable in the history of j-olar
explorations.

He visited England, Scotland and
the United States, and was everywhere
received with the honor due to his
achievements, and wherever he lectured
great interest was awakened by his
story of the Polar world. No one desti-
tute of great courage, intrepidity and
perseverance could have braved the
rigors of the Arctic clime and accom-
plished what Nansen did.

A Balloon Voyage.

In the summer of 1897 an explorer of
Swedish birth, S. A. Andree, conceived
the idea of reaching the pole by meanv"
of a balloon voyage. Although the
attempt was considered by most persons
as visionary he succeeded in making a
start with two companions, holding out
expectations of his return in a few
months after having accomplished his
object. The party was never heard of
afterward, and undoubtedly met the fate
that was anticipated by all scientific
men, who looked upon the undertaking
as a piece of the utmost folly.

Mention has been made of Lieutenant

264

VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD

Peary, of the United States Navy, who
has distinguished himself in Arctic ex-
plorations, especially in Greenland. In
1898 he returned to Greenland to pursue
his discoveries. Thus the century has
witnessed a great advance in our knowl-
edge of the Polar region, which, by
these various voyages and the heroic
achievements of those who have under-
taken them, has been brought near to
the rest of the world and is no longer
such an unknown realm as it was a
hundred years before and has been for
thousands of years.

Life in the Arctics.

Human life in these far regions is
even more wonderful than that of the
lower animals. It is hardly credible
that in these bleak territories of endless
snow and winter people should be found
who prefer their snowy surroundings to
all the glories of more tropical climes,
and would not exchange their snow-
villages for the splendor of any metro-
polis in either hemisphere.

There is not a more singular people
on the earth than those living within
the Arctic belt; nomadic, and yet all
their resources are taxed to procure a
living ; always pressed for ^ood, and yet
wonderfully hospitable; true barba-
rians, but none the less peaceable and
clever. Away in the chilly North

nature withholds her gifts of food and
warmth, and then with hard and piti-
less niggardness, she drives such chilly
blasts as if life within her sphere had
angered her. Under a glinting sky 0/
frost, within an unbroken landscape of
inexpressibly lonesome desolation, the
Esquimau makes his home and lives,
despite the rigor and barren waste of his
nameless country.

These wonderful children of eccentric
creation are controlled by no law, either
written or traditional, and acknow-
ledge accountability only to their own
conscience, and yet they are orderlv
and given little to crime. They have
patriarchs in their tribes who give ad-
vice, but never assert authority. Es-
quimau children render singular obe-
dience to their parents, even after
reaching maturity, which proceeds from
a remarkable fraternal devotion, for
there is no such thing as punishment of
a male child by its parents.

The value of the scientific discoveries
made during the century by explorers
in the Polar world cannot be overesti-
mated. The frigid blanks of the North
have been brought near ; a new world
has been revealed, although buried in
snow and ice; adventure has dazzled
the nations with its feats, and much
has been added to the sum of human
knowledge.

CHAPTER XVIII.

Livingstone and Stanley in Central Africa.

(^ThE greatest names in the history
*\ of Central African exploration
-^ in the Nineteenth Century are
those of Livingstone and Stanley. The
brave old missionary whose name stands
first had passed more than twenty years
of his life in Africa when he set out
upon his last and most important journey
in 1866.

Sailing from Zanzibar with a party
of thirty men — Arabs, Hindoos, and
negroes — he landed at the mouth of the
Rovuma, and proceeded in a south-
westerly direction, along a most difl&cult
route. It was a mere footpath, which
had been made by the natives through
the dense jungle by the easiest way,
without any regard to its course being
in the right direction. In pursuing this
devious track, Livingstone and his party
had to cut their way through with axes
to enable the camels to pass under the
branches of trees, and avoid the im-
pediments presented by the rope- like
climbing and trailing plants that fes-
tooned them.

In September he was within view of
Lake Nyassa. Crossing the mountains,
he descended into the valley of the
Chambezi, which at that time, misled
by Portuguese writers and the similarity
of name, he believed to be the head
water of the Zambesi. Continuing his
journey westward, he entered the king-
dom of Lrunda, the ruler of which, the
famous Cazembe, was a man of consid-
erable intelligeiice. This potentate, a
tall, stalwart negro, clad in crimson
cotton, received the traveller very hospi-

tably, and gave orders that he should
be allowed to go where he would in his
country unmolested.

During their interview, the Queen ol
Cazembe was brought up to the house
on a litter, surrounded by her body-
guard. Being a fine, tall young woman,
of attractive exterior, she had calcu-
lated, it would seem, upon making a
powerful impression upon the white
man, and had dressed herself for the in-
terview in the choicest articles of attire
her wardrobe afibrded. But something
in her appearance caused the doctor to
laugh ; her majesty laughed also, per-
haps at the appearance of the doctor,
who was the first tvhite man she had
ever seen. The laugh was echoed by
the whole band of bearers, which so
disconcerted her that, instead of staying
to make a conquest of the doctor, she
beat an undignified retreat, followed by
her body-guard.

On leaving Cazembe's capital, Liv-
ingstone proceeded in a north-easterly
direction until he reached a lake, which
the natives called Liemba, but which
he found, by tracing it northward, to
be Tanganika. In November, 1867,
he reached the shores of Lake Moero,
which is about sixty miles in length,
and, rounding its southern extremity,
discovered a river, called the Luapula,
flowing into it. Following it south-
ward, he found that it proceeded from
the great lake of Bangweolo, which is
as large as Tanganika ; and in explor-
ing the shores of the lake he found the
Chambezi flowing into it, and thus dis-

265

266

LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA.

covered that it was not the Zambesi, as
he had at first supposed.

He then returned to Lunda, and
rested some time with the hospitable
monarch of that country. Again re-
suming his wanderings, he was deserted
by all his followers, except two. They
repented, however, and returned to his

Ivualaba. Its course was winding, but
with great perseverance he traced it
into the long narrow lake of Kamo-
londo.

Then he turned southward, and traced
the river up to the foot of I^ake Moero.
Turning northward again, he followed
the river through all its numerous

DR. Livingstone; thxv

^^XVJ-^-LVJJ

service ; and in March, 1 869, he reached
Ujiji.

After resting there three months,
he crossed over to Uguhra, on the wes-
tern shore of Tanganika, and thence
accompanied a trading party to Bam-
barre, where he was detained six months
with ulcerated feet. As soon as he was
able to travel again, he set off in a
northerly direction, and after several
days reached a broad river called the

j^^rKD AFRICAN EXPIvORIjR.

bends to within four degrees of the
equator. He heard of another lake
farther north, in which it was said to
run ; and was led by this northward
course to the conclusion that he had
discovered the headwaters of the Nile
in the Chambezi and the Lualaba. He
was destitute of means for further ex-
plorations, however, and retraced his
steps to Ujiji.

So long a time had now elapsed since

UVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA.

26?

any news of the gallant old man had
been received in England that much
anxiety was felt as to his fate, not only
in that country, but throughout the
civilized world. Mr. Bennett, proprie-
tor of the " New York Herald,'' seized
the opportunity that thus presented
itself, and commissioned one of its most
trusty correspondents, the now famous
Stanley, to lead an expedition into the
wilds of Central Africa in search of
Livingstone.

Preparing for the Journey.

Stanley reached Zanzibar in the first
week of 1871, and a month later left
that place, accompanied by Farquhar
and Shaw, who had held the rank of
mates in the mercantile marine, an
Arab named Selim, who was to serve
■^s interpreter, six natives who had
travelled with Captain Speke, and
eighteen other negroes.

Landing at Bagamoyo, twenty-five
miles south of Zanzibar, he was there
detained several weeks by the usual
difficulty of procuring porters ; but at
length a start was made for the interior,
all engaged in the expedition in the
highest spirits. The route pursued
had never been trodden by white men
before, and for several days presented
alternate tracts of jungle and swamp.
Then the party entered upon a ver-
dant plain, backed by distant moun-
tains. But the prospect soon changed;
the grassy plain was succeeded by ex-
tensive reedy swamps, intersected by
numerous shallow streams. His follow-
ers, too, European as well as native,
gave Stanley considerable trouble, of
which an instance may be quoted.

Stanley was waiting for Shaw, who
was leading a caravan with supplies.

Food being scarce in the camp, and
Shaw not arriving, he sent a message
to him, requiring him to come on with
all the speed he could ; but time passed,
and the caravan arrived not.

Stanley then set out to meet it, and
thus describes Shaw's order of march ;
"Stout burly Chowereh carried the
cart on his head, having found that
carrying it was easier than drawing it.
The sight was such a damper to my
regard for it as an experiment, that the
cart was wheeled into the reeds and
there left. The central figure was
Shaw himself, riding at a gait which
rendered it doubtful wiiether he or his
animal felt most sleepy. Upon expos-
tulating with him for keeping the cara-
van so long waiting when there was a
march on hand, he said he had done
the best he could ; but as I had seen
the solemn pace at which he rode, I
felt dubious about his best endeavors,
and requested him, if he could not
mend his pace, to dismount and permit
the donkey to proceed to camp, that it
might be loaded for the march."

African Scenery.

Wooded valleys succeeded, and in the
first week of June the expedition en-
tered the region of Uyanzi, where, says
Stanley, "the scenery was much more
picturesque than any we had yet seen
since leaving Bagamoyo. The ground
rose into grander waves, hills cropped
out here and there, great castles of
syenite appeared, giving a strange and
weird appearance to the forest. "

Unyanyembe was reached a few days
afterwards, but then came many trou-
bles ; many of the men were prostrated
by sickness, many more deserted, and
the invasion of the country by the re-

268

tlVlNGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA.

doubtable Mirambo added to the diffi-
culties by which Stanley was beset.
Farquhar first, and then Shaw were left
behind, in the care of friendly chiefs,
weary and sick, and it was not until
September that Stanley was able to
leave Unyanyenibe for Ujiji.

An Unbounded Forest.

"We ascended," says Stanley, "a
ridge bristling with syenite boulders of
massive size, appearing above the forest
— an illimitable forest, stretching in
grand waves far beyond the ken of
vision; ridges, forest-clad, rising gently
one above another until they receded
in the dim purple distance, with a warm
haze floating above them, which, though
clear enough in our neighborhood, be-
came impenetrably blue in the far dis-
tance.

"Woods, woods, woods, one above
another, rising, falling and receding —
a very leafy ocean. The horizon at all
points presents the same view. There
may be an indistinct outline of a hill
far away, or a taller tree than the rest
conspicuous in its outlines against the
translucent sky ; with this exception,
it is the same — the same clear sky drop-
ping into the depths of the forest, the
same outlines, the same forest, the same
horizon, day after day, week after
week.

Early in October the expedition."
entered upon what Stanley calls "a
grand, noble expanse of park-land, whose
glorious magnificence and vastness of
prospect, with a far-stretching carpet of
verdure, darkly flecked here and there
by miniature clumps of jungle, was one
of the finest scenes in Africa." Large
game was plentiful, herds of zebras,
buffaloes, giraffes and antelopes roam-

ing in every direction over the grassy
plain, so that the travelers were now
abundantly supplied with food.

Farther on, where the undulations
swelled into hills and valleys, and the
rivers rendered the latter swampy, ele-
phants and fhinoceri were seen for the
first time. Leopards were occasionally
seen, and lions roared at night around
the camp.

Ravines and Naked Rocks.

Winding along the base of the Kasera
mountains, they crossed the lofty ridge
which bounds the depression of Imrera
on the west and north, and on the 29th
"were in view of the sublimest but
ruggedest scene we had yet beheld in
Africa. The country was cut ap in all
directions by deep, narrow ravines,
trending' generally toward the north-
west, while on either side rose enormous
square masses of naked rock (sandstone),
with but little vegetation anywhere
visible, except it obtained a precarious
tenure in the fissured crown of some
hill top, or at the base of the scarps
which everywhere lifted their fronts to
our view."

The Malagarazi was crossed on the
2nd of November, and on the following
day news that Livingston was at Ujiji
was received from a negro caravan com-
ing from that direction, and Stanley
immediately pushed on with renewed
vigor.

On the loth, a silvery gleam seen be-
tween the trees afforded the first glimpse
of Lake Tanganika ; but several hours
elapsed before they looked down upon
Ujiji, embowered among graceful palms.
Then the American flag was unfurled,
guns were fired, and as the expedition
marched into the village the inhabi-

LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA.

269

tants, Arabs and negroes of many tribes,
swarmed out to meet them.

''Good morning, sir," said a voice
from the black crowd, and Stanley, look-
ing round in surprise, saw a joyous-

' ' Is Dr. Livingstone here ? " asked

Mr. Stanley.

"Yes, sir."

"Are you sure?"

"Sure, sir ; I leave him just now."

HENRY M. STA.NI.EY, FAMOUS FOR HIS EXPLORATIONS IN AFRICA.

looking negro, wearing a white turban
and a long white shirt.

" Who the mischief are you ? " the
astonished traveller asked.

" I am Susi, the servant of Dr. Liv-
ingstone," was the reply.

"Good morning, sir," said another
voice.

"Hallo!" said Stanley. "Is this
another one?"

" Yes, sir," said another ebony figure.

"Well, what is your name ?"

270

LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA.

"My name is Ghumah, sir."

" And is the doctor well ?"

" Not very well, sir."

' ' Now, you Susi, run and tell the doc-
tor I am coming."

"Yes, sir." And off rushed Susi.

Proceeding through a momently in-
creasing crowd, Stanley met Susi
again, breathless with running. He
had told the doctor that a white man
was coming, but when Livingstone,
too much surprised to conceive such
a visit possible, asked the traveller's
name, Susi had no answer to give
him. The news had spread, how-
ever, and the Arab r-agnates of the
place gathered under the verandah.

Stanley Meets Dr. Livingstone.

"I pushed back the crowd," says
Stanley, "and walked down a living
avenue of people, until I came in front
of the semi-circle of Arabs, in front of
which stood the white man. As I ad-
vanced I noticed he was pale, looked
wearied, had a gray beard, wore a blue
cap with a faded gold band round it,
had on a red-sleeved waistcoat, and a
pair of grey tweed trousers.

"I would have run to him, only I
was a coward in the presence of such a
mob — would have embraced him, only
he being an Englishman I did not know
how he would receive me ; so I walked
deliberately to him, took off my hat and
said, 'Dr. Livingstone, I presume?'
' Yes, ' said he, with a smile, lifting his
cap slightly. I replaced my hat on my
head, and he puts on his cap, and we
grasp hands, and I say, 'I thank God,
doctor, I have been permitted to see
you.' He answered, ' I feel thankful
that I am here to welcome you." I
turned to the Arabs, took off my hat to

them in respon ..e to the saluting chorus
oi yambos I received, and the doctor in-
troduced them to me by name."

The Arabs, with the delicacy of true
politeness, soon left the two Europeans
together, and then Stanley handed to
Livingstone a bag of letters which had
been lying for months at Unyanyembe,
and the doctor had many questions to ask,
which passed the afternoon and evening.

One morning they embarked in a
large canoe, lent by one of the Arab
gentlemen of the place, and steered
northward, keeping close to the shore,
"with a range of hills, beautifully
wooded and clothed with green grass,
sloping abruptly, almost precipitously,
into the depths of the fresh-water sea,
towering immediately above us, and as
we rounded the several capes or points,
roused expectations of some new won-
der, or some exquisite picture. Nor
were we disappointed.

Gardens and Palmy Forests,
" From Bagamoyo to Ujiji I had seen
nothing to compare to them — these
fishing settlements under the shade of
palms and plantains, banians, and mi-
mosa, with cassava gardens to the right
and left of palmy forests, and patches
of luxuriant grain looking down upon
the quiet bay. ' '

The northern shores of the lake were
flat, with many reed-beds, and croco-
diles were numerous, though on the
southern portion they were seldom
seen. Skirting these marshy shores,
the explorers reached the western side
of the lake, which rose much more
loftily and precipitously than the east-
ern. On the 1 2th of December they
regained Ujiji, from which they had
been absent twenty-eight days. Liv-

LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA.

271

ingstone then couimeiiced writing let-
ters, and copying memoranda of his
explorations and discoveries into his
journal, which, with the letters, Stanley
was to take to England on his return.

"I sketched him," says the latter,
" while sitting in his shirt-sleeves in
the verandah, with his diary on his
knee, as he pondered on what he had
witnessed during his long marches."

Ivivingstone and Stanley left Ujiji in
company on the 27th of November
with the British and American flags
waving at the prows of the two large
canoes lent them by the friendly Arabs.
Skirting the eastern shore in a south-
ward direction, the travellers landed at
Urimba, and, after waiting to be joined
by thosfe of their followers who had
gone by land, started up the valley of
the Ivoajeri for Unyanyembe. It was
soon found that the guide knew nothing
about the road, notwithstanding his
voluble assurances that he was well
acquainted with the topography of all
of the surrounding country. Stanley
therefore put himself at the head of
the caravan, and led a due easterly
course, as indicated by the compass.

Stanley and the Elephant.
One day, about a fortnight after their
departure from Ujiji, and when food
was becoming scarce, Stanley took his
rifle and strolled up a picturesque ra-
vine in quest of game. Advancing
through thick forests, he suddenly found
himself confronted with a huge ele-
phant. "Methought," says the travel-
ler, "when I saw his trunk stretched
forward, like a warning finger, that I
heard a voice say, ^ Siste^ venator P
But whether it did not proceed from
my imagination — no, I believe it pro-

ceeded from one of my party, who
nmst have shouted ' Lo, an elephant !
an elephant, my master ! ' for the young
rascal had fled as soon as he witnessed
the awful colossus in such close vicin-
age. Recovering from my astonish-
ment, I thought it prudent to retire
also. As I looked behind, I saw him
waving his trunk, which I understood
to mean, ' Good bye, young fellow ! It
is lucky for you you went in time, for
I was going to pound you to a jelly.' "

Had to Live on Mushrooms.

Tracks of animals were frequently
observed, but, it being the rainy season,
the game was scattered, and none could
be procured. Persistently holding an
easterly course, Stanley led the way
over ridge after ridge, seeing rivers
foaming and brawling through narrow
beds that in summer were dry, and on
the ninth day of the march saw Mag-
dala Mount, bearing north-east, and
knew that they were approaching Im-
rera.

Rain had fallen every day, and a veil
of grey haze hung over the forest.
Mushrooms were abundant, and for the
last day or fwo constituted the travel-
lers' only food. Arrived at Imrera, the
natives crowded around them with sup-
plies and congratulations ; but they
lialted only a day there, and on the 19th
two zebras fell to Stanley's rifle, and
the caravan was again joyous.

On the 31st they met a caravan on its
way from Unyanyembe to Ujiji, and
learned the death of Shaw at the former
place, the result of fever, rendered fatal
by intemperance. The Gombe was
reached on the 7th of February, and
they camped near one of its largest
lakes, which is several miles in length,

272

LIVING«TONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA.

and swarms with hippopotami and croc-
odiles. Here numerous imprints of
lions' feet were observed, besides those
of elephants, rhinoceri, hogs, and ante-
lopes ; and on the following day, while
looking for game, Stanley was startled
by the roaring of three lions, apparently
close at hand.

Bounded into the Forest.

Instinctively cocking his rifle, he
glanced keenly around, and detected,
not the lions, but a large antelope,
which stood trembling, as if it dreaded
the fatal spring of the forest lords-
Stanley fired, and the antelope gave a
tremendous bound, and rushed into the
forest, where, though wounded, as
shown by its bloody trail, it disappeared.
The report seemed to have scared the
lions, for they were not seen or heard
again.

Unyanyembe was reached on the i8th
of February, and the valley of Khiwhara
entered with flags flying and guns firing.
Stanley's first act was to raise a monu-
ment over the grave of Shaw. Fifty
men were engaged for two days in
bringing rocks to the spot, with which
a cairn eight feet long and five broad
was constructed, which lyivingstone
said would ever afterwards be known as
the grave of the first white man who
had died in Unyamwezi.

Stanley remained in his old quarters,
with Livingstone as his guest, until the
14th of March, when they separated ;
the latter resolved not to leave Africa
until the mystery of the Nile sources
was finally cleared up, and the former
resumed his return journey to Zanzibar.

On the 27th, when the expedition
was encamped in the shade of a group
of colossal baobabs, they were startled

by the bellowing of war-horns, and at
first thought that an attack was about
to be made on the camp. It soon be-
came known, however, that the alarm
was on account of the rumored incursion
of an unfriendly tribe.

Stanley thus describes the scene which
this alarm preluded : — ^^" The men rushed
to their villages, and in a short time
we saw them arrayed in full fighting
costume. Feathers of the ostrich and
the eagle waved over their fronts, or
the mane of the zebra surrounded their
heads ; their knees and ankles were
hung with little bells ; joho robes floated
behind, from their necks; spears, asse-
gais, knob-sticks, and bows were flour-
ished over their heads, or held in their
right hands, as if ready for hurling.

A Mimic War.

' ' On each flank of a large body which
issued from the principal village, and
which came at a uniform swinging
double-quick, the ankle and knee bells
all chiming in admirable unison, were
a cloud of skirmishers, consisting of the
most enthusiastic, who exercised them-
selves in mimic war as they sped along.
Column after column, companies from
every village, hurried past our camp,
until, probably, there were nearly a
thousand soldiers gone to the war." At
nightfall these warriors returned from,
the forest. There had been no fighting,
the alarm having been without founda-
tion.

On the 30th the expedition arrived at
Khonze, and halted near the village,
while some friendly Wagogo travellers
who had joined them, settled the cus-
toms duties, or tribute, with the chief.
The Wagogos ran back to the halting-
place, breathless, shouting, "Why do

LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA.

27S

you halt here? Do you wish to die?
These pagans will not take the tribute,
but they boast they will eat up all your
cloth." Close upon their heels came
the chief and his fighting men, all
armed.

Stanley ordered his men to load, and
then strode up to the chief, and asked
whether he had come to take the cloth
by force, or would accept quietly what
was given him. A Wanyamwezi, who
had instigated the chief to make an ex-
orbitant demand, was about to speak, but
Stanley pushed him aside, and threat-
ened to shoot him first if he was forced
to fight. The chief laughed at the
man's discomfiture, and in a short time
he and Stanley settled the matter to
their mutual satisfaction.

Danger of a Massacre.

Two days afterwards, whilst halting
near the village of Mapanga, they were
surprised by a rush of forty or fifty
armed men from the jungle, all whoop-
ing and yelling, and brandishing their
spears, in a manner unmistakably hos-
tile. The moment was critical. One
spear thrown, one musket fired, would
have been the signal for an onslaught,
the prelude, perhaps, of a massacre.

The opposing forces were numeric-
ally equal ; but Stanley knew that the
whole of his men could not be relied
upon for a fight, and prudence united
with humanity in suggesting an effort
to settle the cause of quarrel peacefully.
Without arising from the bale on which
he was seated, he desired his flag- bearer
to inquire whether the chief of the
Khonze came to rob them.

"No," replied the chief. " We don't

want to rob you, or to stop the road ;

but we want the tribute."
18

" Don't you see us halted, and a bale
opened to send it?" said Stanley, direct-
ing his attention to a bale of goods
which had just been opened. "We
have halted so far from your village
that, when the tribute is settled, we
may proceed on our way, as the day is
yet young."

The chief laughed, and explained in
his turn that, as he and his men were
cutting wood for a new fence for the vil-
lage, a lad brought the news that a cara-
van was about passing through the coun-
try without stopping. The tribute was
then settled amicably, and the chief
begged Stanley to make rain for him,
as none had fallen for months, and his
crops were suffering. Our traveller
told him that, though, white men were
very clever, much superior to the Arabs,
they could not make rain ; and, though
disappointed, the chief was satisfied,
and accompanied the expedition some
distance to show them the road.

Memorial to Farqahar.

On the 7th of April the village was
reached at which Farquhar had been
left, and had died a few days afterwards.
The chief showed Stanley the spot on
which the corpse had been deposited,
but not a vestige of the remains could
be discovered. A mound of stones was
raised upon the spot, however, as a
memorial.

Continuing their journey, they found
the river Mukondokwa so swelled by
the rains that it swept through the val-
ley like a torrent, while the fields were
flooded, and every nullah was a stream.
Three times the foaming flood was
crossed at the fords by the help of ropes
fastened to the trees on either bank.
Rain descended heavily every day, and

2f4

LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA.

the drenched travellers had to wade
through the floods or tramp through
dripping jungles.

On the 13 th they reached a river
which, though narrow, was too deep to
be fordable. They had to halt, there-
fore, and fell a tree, which they con-
trived should fall across the stream, and
along this Stanley led the way, the rest
following by bestriding the tree and
pushing their bales and boxes before
them. One young fellow, who was
carrying on his head the box containing
Ivivingstone's letters and journals, im-
pelled by excess of zeal or reckless
bravado, plunged into the stream.
Stanley watched him in an agony of
fear. Suddenly the man, stepping into
a hole, was immersed up to his chin.

A Frightened Negro.

" Look out ! ' ' exclaimed Stanley,
pointing a revolver at him; "Drop
that box and I'll shoot you !" All the
men stood still, or motionless bestrode
their primitive bridge, to gaze at their
imperiled companion. The frightened
negro was grey with fear, but making
a desperate effort, he got the precious
box across in safety.

An hour afterwards they came to the
river of which this stream was a branch,
and found it a broad flood of brown
and foaming water. They constructed
a raft, by cutting down four trees and
lashing them together, but it sank as
soon as it was launched. All their
ropes were then tied together, making
a line 180 feet long, one end of which
was tied round a strong swimmer, who
undertook to lash it to a tree on the
other side.

The negro, strong swimmer as he
was, was carried far down the stream,

but he succeeded in gaining the
opposite bank, and securing the rope
to a tree. By means of the rope
both men and baggage were dragged
through the water, the more valuable
boxes being conveyed upon a sort of
light hand-barrow resting upon men's
shoulders.

The River Rising.

A superficial knowledge of the phy-
sical geography of Africa scarcely pre-
pares us for such scenes as meet the
eye of the traveller in the rainy season.
"Within twenty feet of our camp,"
says Stanley, "was a rising river, with
flat, low banks ; above us was a gloomy,
weeping sky ; surrounding us on three
sides was an immense forest, on whose
branches we heard the constant patter-
ing rain ; beneath our feet was a great
depth of mud, black and loathsome.
Add to these the thought that the river
might overflow and sweep us to utter
destruction." The strong current of the
Makata, fifty yards wide, was crossed
by swimming, and on the 29th the ex-
pedition was at Simbimwenni, where
the flooded Ungerengeri had y wept away
the whole of the river wall and about
fifty houses. Many of the inhabitants
had been drowned, and the rest had
abandoned the place, of which a hurri-
cane had made a wreck.

The rain had now ceased, but the
jungle was a pestiferous swamp, where
huge snakes hung upon the branches
of trees, and land-crabs, scorpions, and
innumerable creeping things, swarmed
upon the black mud beneath. On the
4th of May the expedition was within
four miles of Bagamoyo, but that space ■
was covered with flood-water, and they
had to camp on its western margin

LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA.

2T5

until canoes could be brought to ferry
them over.

Bagaraoyo was entered at sunset on
the 6th, the arrival being signalized by
the firing of guns and much shouting
and gesticulating, after the manner of
the country. Arabs and Hindoos, Be-
loochees and negroes, thronged about
the men who had performed such a
wonderful march, and when they had
reached the centre of the town, Stanley
was greeted and congratulated by Lieu-
tenant Herin, of the Livingstone Relief

Expedition, which was to have done
what had already been accomplished
by Stanley; by Mr. Oswald Livingstone,
the doctor's son; and the Rev. Charles
New, the missionary.

The long march was ended, and on
the day after his arrival at Bagamoyo
the Arab dhow which conveyed the ex-
pedition back to Zanzibar, anchored in
the harbor. Soon afterward Stanley
returned to relate his wonderful ad-
ventures and discoveries in Central
Africa.

CHAPTER XIX.

Stanley's Great Journeys Across Africa.

E have now to describe one of
the most extraordinary, if
not actually the greatest feat
ever performed in the annals of modern
exploration. This expedition under-
talren by Henry M. Stanley from Zan-
zibar right across the African continent
to the Congo, was so full of perilous
adventure, so remarkable for pluck and
resolution, that it stands out boldly
upon the canvas of history as the
greatest achievement of our times.

Stanley's own account of what pre-
ceded his great undertaking is full of
interest : " While returning to England
in April, 1874, from the Ashantee War
the news reached me that I/ivingstone
was dead -that his body was on its way
to England ! Livingstone had then
fallen ! He was dead ! He had died
by the shores of Lake Bemba, on the
threshold of the dark region he wished
to explore ! The work he had promised
to perform was only begun when death
overtook him !

" The effect which this news had
upon me, after the first shock passed
away, was to fire me with a resolution
to complete his work, to be, if God
willed it, the next martyr to geograph-
ical science, or, if my life was to be
spared, to clear up not only the secrets
of the Great River throughout its
course, but also all that remained still
problematic and incomplete of the dis-
coveries of Burton and Speke, and
Speke and Grant.

The solemn day of the burial of
276

the body of my great friend anived
I was one of the pall-bearers in West-
minster Abbey, and when I had seen
the coffin lowered into the grave, and
had heard the first handful of earth
thrown over it, I walked away sorrow-
ing over the fate of David Living-
stone."

Soon the resolve was formed to com-
plete, if possible, the work Livingstone
had been compelled to leave undone.
In this memorable expedition the
"Daily Telegraph," of London, and
the "New York Herald" newspapers
were associated. Mr. Stanley was com-
missioned to complete the discoveries
of Speke, Burton, and Livingstone. His
party from England consisted of Francis
and Edward Pocock and Frederick
Barker. A barge, named the Lady
Alice, was taken in sections, besides
two other boats, with a perfect equip-
ment. When all preparations had been
completed, and the farewell dinners
eaten, Stanley left England, to begin
his perilous journey, on the 15th of
August, 1874.

He reached Zanzibar September 2ist,
1874, and there found many formei
associates of his search for Doctor Liv-
ingstone. He engaged quite a little
army of followers to go with him and
carry the outfit. This outfit, which
consisted of a most miscellaneous col-
lection of articles, weighed 18,000
pounds, and was, with the party, car-
ried across to the continent from Zanzi-
bar island in six Arab vessels. On the

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

27?

morning of the i/th of November the
start was made into the interior.

The first stage of this journey was to
the Victoria Nyanza, which Stanley
desired to explore. The imperfect de-
scription and explanations of previous
travellers had left much to be decided
wncerningthis great inland sea. "Was
it the source of the Nile or of the
Cono-o?" " Was it part of a lake system,
or alake by itself?" These questions
Stanley had determined to answer once
for all.

Many Adventures.

The advance to the grt d Lake Vic- ,
toria was full of adventurous interest.
Travelling in the "Dark Continent^'
means being at times in the wilderness
without a guide, or with traitors actmg
as guides, which is a worse alternative.
This was Stanley's fate, and he was
deserted in the waste with a small stock
of food. Through the terrible ' 'jungle' '
the men had to crawl, cutting their
way, guided solely by the compass,
overcome by hunger and thirst, deser-
tions frequent, sickness stalking along-
side. This was indeed ' ' famine-stricken

Ugogo."

While on this disastrous march he
lost five of his people, who " wandered
on helplessly, fell down, and died."
The country produced no food, or even
game, unless lions could be so called.
Two young lions were found in a den,
and were quickly killed and eaten.
This was the only food for the whole
expedition ! Stanley tells us how he
returned to camp, and was so struck by
the pinched jaws of his followers that
he nearly wept. He decided to utilize his
precious medical stores, and wisely, for
the people were famishing ; medicinal

comforts for the dead had no meaning.
So he made a quantity of gruel, which
kept the expedition alive for eight and
forty hours, and then the men he had
despatched to Suma for provisions re-
turned with food. Refreshed they all
marched on, so that they might reach
Suma ne>;t morning.

Hostile Natives.
After proceeding twenty miles, they
came to the cultivated districts and en-
camped. But the natives of Suma
were hostile, and the increasing sick
list made a four days' halt necessary.
There were thirty men ailing from vari-
ous diseases. Edward Pocock was taken
ill here, and on the fourth day he be-
came delirious ; but the increasing sus
picions of the natives— who are repre-
sented as a very fine race— made depart-
ure necessary, and so a start was made
on the i7tli of January, in very hostile
company.

The famine in Ugogo had severely
tried every man's constitution, and all
felt weak in spirit if not ill in body.
"Weary, harassed, feeble creatures,'-
they reached Chiwyu, four hundrH
miles from the sea, and camped nea.
the crest of a hill 5,400 feet high.
Here Edward Pocock breathed his last.
He was laid under an acacia, and upon
the trunk of this fine old tree a cross
was cut deeply, in memory of a faith-
ful follower.

Hence two rivulets run, gradually
converging, and finally uniting into a
stream which trends toward Lake Vic-
toria. So here the extreme southern
sources of the Nile were discovered ; but
up to this point the explorer had, as he
said, "child's play," to what he after-
wards encountered. We have already

278

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

seen what this child's play was like.
Stanley proceeded g-ently to Vinyata,
where the expedition arrived on the
2ist of January, 1875. Here a magic
doctor paid Stanley a visit, and cast
longing eyes at the stores.

Next day, after the departure of the
magic doctor, who came for another
present, the natives showed hostile

cowardice the wish for peace. There
were so many tempting articles too —
stores dear to the native mind, which the
inhabitants coveted. No peace would
be made at any price, and the savages
attacked the camp in force.

Stanley disposed his men behind
hastily-erected earthworks and other
shelter, and used the sections of the

FIERCE ATTACK BY NATIVES UPON THE EXPLORERS.

symptoms. One hundred ,_^. savages,
armed and in warlike costume, came
around, shouting and brandishing their
weapons. At this juncture Stanley, fol-
lowing Livingstone's practice, decided
to make no counter demonstration ; but
to remain quiet in camp, and provoke
no hostility. This plan did not answer,
however. The natives mistook for

lyady Alice barge as a citadel for
final occupation. There were only sev-
enty effective men to defend the camp
but these were divided into detachmenta
and subdivided. One sub-detachment
was quickly destroyed, and in the day^'s
fight twenty-one soldiers and one mes-
senger were killed — three wounded.
Stanley's men, however, pursued th«

STANLEY S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

2T9

retreating enemy, ,ind burned many vil-
lages, the men bringing in cattle and
grain as spoils. Next day the natives
came on again, but they were quickly
routed, and the expedition continued
its way through the now desolate
valley unmolested. So the Iturnians
were punished, after three days of
battle.

Losses of the Expedition.

The victory, however, had not been
much to boast of. After only three
months' march, the expedition had lost
1 20 Africans and one European, from
the effects of sickness and battle. There
were now only 194 men left of 356 who
had set out with the expedition. They
passed on, however, toward the Victoria
Nyanza, and after escaping the warlike
Mirambo, who fought everybody on
principle, Stanley reached Kagehyi on
the 27th of February. He was now
close to the Lake, having marched 720
miles ; average daily march, ten miles.

On the 8th of March Stanley, leaving
F. Pocock to command the camp, set
forth with eleven men in the Lady
Alice, to explore the Lake and ascer-
tain whether it is one of a series, as Dr.
Livingstone said it was. The explorer
began by coasting Speke Gulf. Many
interesting observations v/ere made. He
penetrated into each little bay and creek,
finding indications that convinced him
that the slave trade is carried on there.
But the explorer had to battle for his
information. Near Chaga the natives
came down, and, after inducing him
to land, attacked him; but Stanley
"dropped" one man, and the natives
subsided. On another occasion the
natives tried to entrap him, but he es-
caped by firing on the savages, killing

three men, and sinking their canoes
with bullets from an elephant rifle.

Continuing his course now unop-
posed, Stanley coasted along the Uganda
shore. Just as he was about to depart,
on the following morning, he perceived
six beautitul canoes, crowded with men,
all dressed in white, approaching ; they
were the king's people conveying a
messenger from the King of Uganda to
Stanley, begging a visit from him.
This messenger was gorgeously arrayed
for the important occasion ; he wore a
bead-worked head-dress, above which
long white cock's feathers waved, and
a snowy white and long-haired goat-
skin, intertwined with a crimson robe,
depending from his shoulders, com-
pleted his costume. Approaching Stan-
ley, he delivered his message thus :

Invitation from a King.

" The Kabaka (King) sends me with
many salaams to you. He is in great
hopes that you will visit him, and has en-
camped at Usavara, that he may be near
the lake when you come. He does not
know from what land you have come,
but I have a swift messenger with a
canoe who will not stop until he gives
all the news to the Kabaka. His
mother dreamed a dream a few nights
ago, and in her dream she saw a white
man on this lake in a boat coming this
way, and the next morning she told the
Kabaka, and lo ! you have come. Give
me your answer, that I may send the
messenger. Twiyanzi-yanzi-yanzi !"
(Thanks, thanks, thanks.)

Thus delivering himself, the messen-
ger, whose name was Magassa, implored
Stanley to remain one day longer, that
he might show him the hospitalities of
his country, and prepare him for a grand

280

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AERICA.

reception by the king, to which Stanley
consented.

Magassa was in his glory now. His
voice became imperious to his escort of
182 men; even the feathers of his cur-
ious head-dress waved prouder, and his
robe had a sweeping dignity worthy of
a Roman emperor's. Upon landing, Ma-
gassa's stick was employed frequently.
The sub-chief of Kadzi was compelled
to yield implicit obedience to his vice-
regal behests.

" Bring out bullocks, sheep, and goats,
milk, and the mellowest of your choice
bananas, and great jars of maramba, and
let the white man and his boatmen eat,
and taste the hospitalities of Uganda.
Shall a white man enter the Kabaka's
presence with an empty belly? See
how sallow and pinched his cheeks are.
We want to see whether we can show
him a kindness superior to what the
pagans have shown him."

The Explorer Feted.

Five canoes escorted the travellers to
Usavara, the ca|5ital of King Mtesa.
The explorer was most kindly received,
and closely questioned upon subjects of
so diverse a character as to remind
Stanley of a college examination for a
degree.

King Mtesa appeared quite a civil-
ized monarch, quite a different being
from what he had been when Speke
and Grant had visited him as a young
man. He had become an adherent of
Mahomet, wore Arab dress, and con-
ducted himself well. He entertained
Stanley with reviews of canoes, a naval
"demonstration" of 84 "ships" and
2, 500 men ! Shooting matches, parades,
and many other civilized modes of enter-
tainment were practiced for the amuse-

ment of the white man. In Uganda the
traveller is welcomed, and perfectly safe.
King Mtesa' s country is situated on
the equator, and is a much more pleas-
ant land than might be supposed from
its geographical position, being fertile,
and covered with vegetation. It is a
peculiarly pleasant land for a traveller,
as it is covered with roads, which are a
not only broad and firm, but are cut
almost in a straight line from one point
to another.

Good Roads.

Uganda seems to be unique in the
matter of roads, the like of which are
not to be found in any part of Africa,
except those districts which are held by
Europeans. The roads are wide enough
for carriages, but far too steep in places
for any wheeled conveyance ; but as
the Waganda (the name given to the
inhabitants of Uganda) do not use car-
riages of any kind, the roads are amply
sufficient for their purposes. The Wa-
ganda have even built bridges across
swamps and rivers, but their knowl-
edge of engineering has not enabled
them to build a bridge that would not
decay in a few years.

Ivike many other tribes which bear,
but do not deserve, the name of sav-
ages, the Waganda possess a curiously
strict code of etiquette, which is so
stringent on some points that an offen-
der against it is likely to lose his life,
and is sure to incur a severe penalty.
If, for example, a man appears before
the king with his dress tied carelessly,
or if he makes a mistake in the mode
of saluting, or if, in squatting before
his sovereign, he allows the least por-
tion of his limbs to be visible, he is led
off to instant execution.

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

281

As the fatal sign is given, the victim
is seized by the royal pages, who wear
a rope turban around their heads, aud
at the same moment all the drums and
other instruments strike up, to drown
his cries for mercy. He is rapidly
bound with the ropes snatched hastily
from the heads of the pages, dragged
off, and put to death, no one daring to
take the least notice while the tragedy
is being enacted.

Token of Royal Birth.

They have also a code of sumptuary
laws which is enforced with the greatest
severity. The skin of the serval, a kind
of leopard cat, for example, may only
be worn by those of royal descent.
Once Captain Speke was visited by a
very agreeable young man, who evi-
dently intended to strike awe into the
white man, and wore round his neck
the serval-skin emblem of royal birth.
The attempted deception, however, re-
coiled upon its author, who suffered the
fate of the daw with the borrowed
plumes. An officer of rank detected
the imposture, had the young man
seized, and challenged him to show
proofs of his right to wear the emblem
of royalty. As he failed to do so, he
was threatened with being brought
before the king, and so compounded
with the chief for a fine of a hundred
cows.

Mtesa was a complete African Blue-
beard, continually marrying and kill-
ing, the brides, however, exceeding the
victims in number. Royal marriage
is a very simple business in Uganda.
Parents who have offended their king
and want to pacify him, or who desire
to be looked on favorably by him, bring
their daughters and offer them as he sits

at the door of his house. As is the case
with all his female attendants, they are
totally unclothed, and stand before the
king in ignorance of their future.

If he accepts them, he makes them
sit down, seats himself on their knees,
and embraces them. This is the whole
of the ceremony, and as each girl is
thus accepted, the happy parents per-
form the curious salutation called
"n'yanzigging," that is, prostrating
themselves on the ground, floundering
about, clapping their hands, and ejacu-
lating the word "n'yans," or thanks,
as fast as they can say it.

Brides by the Wholesale.

Twenty or thirty brides will some-
times be presented to him in a single
morning, and he will accept more than
half of them, some of them being after-
ward raised to the rank of wives, while
the others are relegated to the position
of attendants.

Now and then the king held a review,
in which the valiant and the cowards
obtained their fitting rewards. These
reviews offered most picturesque scenes.
" Before us was a large open sward,
with the huts of the queen's Kamra-
viono or commander-in-chief beyond.
The battalion, consisting of what might
be termed three companies, each con-
taining two hundred men, being drawn
up on the left extremity of the parade
ground, received orders to march past
in single file from the right of com-
panies at a long trot, and re-form again
at the end of the square.

"Nothing conceivable could be more
wild or fantastic than the sight which
ensued ; the men were all nearly naked,
with goat or cat skins depending from
their girdles, and smeared with war

282

STANLEY S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

colors, according to the taste of the
individual ; one-half of the body red or
black, the other blue, not in regular
order; as, for instance, one stocking
would be red, and the other black,
whilst the breeches above would be the
opposite colors, and so with the sleeves
and waistcoat.

"Everyman carried the same arms,
two spears and one shield, held as if
approaching an enemy, and they thus
moved in three lines of single rank and
file, at fifteen or twenty paces asunder,
with the same high action and elongated
step, the ground leg only being bent, to
give their strides the greater force.

Fantastic Parade.

"After the men had all started, the
captains of companies followed; even
more fantastically dressed ; and last of
all came the great Colonel Congo w, a
perfect Robinson Crusoe, with his long
white-haired goat-skins, a fiddle-shaped
leather shield, tufted with hair at all six
extremities, bands of long hair tied
below the knees, and a magnificent
helmet covered with rich beads of every
color in excellent taste, surmounted
with a plume of crimson feathers, in
the centre of which rose a bent stem
tufted with goat's hair. Next, they
charged in companies to and fro, and
finally the senior officers came charg-
ing at their king, making violent pro-
fessions of faith and honesty, for which
they were applauded. The parade then
broke up, and all went home."

Stanley, after remaining some time
with Mtesa, departed in October to ex-
plore the country lying between Albert
Nyanza and the Victoria Nyanza. This
time he had with him an escort of
Mtesa's men, under a " general " named

Sambusi. The expedition, after a pleas-
ant march, came within a few miles of
the Albert Nyanza, but then the native
warriors wished to return, and Stanley
yielded perforce. He returned, but the
faint-hearted "general" was put in
irons by Mtesa, whom he had shamed.

Imposing Ceremonies.

The expedition reached Mtesa's on
the 23d of August, and the king re-
ceived Stanley in his council chamber
with great ceremony and many evi-
dences of friendship. Stanley took this
occasion to inform him of the object of
his visit, whicn was to procure guides
and an escort to conduct him to Albert
Lake.

Mtesa replied that he was now en-
gaged in a war with the rebellious
people of Uvuma, who refused to pay
their tribute, harassed the coast of
Chagwe and abducted his people, "sell-
ing them afterward for a few bunches
of bananas," and it was not customary
in Uganda to permit strangers to pro-
ceed on their journeys while the king
was engaged in war; but as soon as
peace should be obtained he would
send a chief with an army to give him
safe conduct by the shortest route to
the lake. Being assured that the war
would not last long, Stanley resolved
to stay and witness it as a novelty, and
take advantage of the time to acquire
information about the country and its
people.

On the 27th of August Mtesa struck
his camp, and began the march to Na-
karanga, a point of land lying within
seven hundred yards of the island of
Ingira, which had been chosen by the
Wavuma as their depot and stronghold,
He had collected an army nuniberii%

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

i83

150,000 warriors, as it was expected
that he would have to fight the rebel-
lious Wasoga as well as the Wavunia.
Besides this great army must be reck-
oned nearly 50,000 women, and about
as many children and slaves of both
sexes, so that at a rough guess, after
looking at all the camps and vari-
ous tributary nations which, at Mte-
sa's command, had contributed their
quotas, the number of souls in Mte-
sa's camp must have been about 250,-
000!

Stanley had the pleasure of review-
ing this immense army as it was put in
motion towards the battle-ground. He
describes the ofiicers and troops in the
following graphic style :

"The advance-guard had departed
too early for me to see them, but, cur-
ious to see the main body of this great
army pass, I stationed myself at an early
hour at the extreme limit of the camp.

"Brave as a Lion."
"First with his legion, came Mkwe-
nda, who guards the frontier between
the Katonga valley and Willi miesi
against the Wanyoro. He is a stout,
burly young man, brave as a lion, hav-
ing much experience of wars, and cun-
ning and adroit in his conduct, accom-
plished with the spear, and possessing,
besides, other excellent fighting qual-
ities. I noticed that the Waganda
chiefs, though Muslimized, clung to
their war-paint and national charms,
for each warrior, as he passed by on the
trot, was most villainously bedaubed
with ochre and pipe-clay. The force
under the command of Mkwenda might
be roughly numbered at 30,000 warriors
and camp-followers, and though the
path was a mere goat-track, the rush of

this legion on the half-trot soon crushed
out a broad avenue.

' ' The old general Kangau, who de-
fends the country between Willimiesi
and the Victoria Nile, came next with
his following, their banners flying,
drums beating, and pipes playing, he
and his warriors stripped for action, their
bodies and faces daubed ^nth. white,
black, and ochreous war-paint.

Splendid Warriors.

"Next came a rush of about 2,000
chosen warriors, all tall men, expert
with spear and shield, lithe of body and
nimble of foot, shouting as they trotted
past their war-cry of ' Kavya, kavya '
(the two last syllables of Mtesa's title
when young — Mukavya, 'king'), and
rattling their spears. Behind them, a+
a quick march, came the musket-armed
body-guard of the emperor, about two
hundred in front, a hundred on either
side of the road, enclosing Mtesa and
his Katekiro, and two hundred bring-
ing up the rear, with their drums beat-
ing, pipes playing, and standards flying,
and forming quite an imposing and war-
like procession.

" Mtesa marched on foot, bare-headed,
and clad in a dress of blue check cloth,
with a black belt of English make
round his waist, and — like the Roman
emperors, who, when returning in tri-
umph, painted their faces a deep Ver-
million— his face dyed a bright red.
The Katekiro preceded him, and wore
a dark-grey cashmere coat. I think
this arrangement was made to deceive
any assassin who might be lurking in
the bushes. If this was the case the
precaution seemed wholly unnecessary,
as the march was so quick that nothing
but a gnu would have been effective,

284

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

and the Wavuma and Wasoga have no
such weapons.

" After Mtesa's body-guard had passed
by, chief after chief, legion after legion,
followed, each distinguished to the na-
tive ear by its diflferent and peculiar
irum-beat. They came on at an ex-
traordinary pace, more like warriors
hurrying up into action than on the
march, and it is their custom, I am
told, to move always at a trot when on
an enterprise of a warlike nature."

A Big War-Boat.

In the ensuing conflict King Mtesa's
army was repulsed. Stanley finally
asked of him 2,000 men, telling him
that with this number he would con-
struct a monster war-boat that would
drive the enemy from their stronghold.

This proposition gave Mtesa intense
delight, for he had begun to entertain
grave doubts of being able to subjugate
the brave rebels. The 2,000 men being
furnished, Stanley set them to cutting
crees and poles, which were peeled and
the bark used for ropes. He lashed
three canoes, of seventy feet length and
six-and-a-half feet breadth, four feet
from each other. Around the edge of
these he caused a stockade to be made of
strong poles, set in upright and then
intertwined with smaller poles and rope
bark.

This made the floating stockade sev-
enty feet long and twenty-seven feet
wide, and so strong that spears could
not penetrate it. This novel craft
floated with much grace, and as the
men paddled in the spaces between the
boats they could not be perceived by
the enemy, who thought it must be pro-
pelled by some supernatural agency.
It was manned by two hundred and

fourteen persons, and moved across the
channel like a thing of life.

As this terrible monster of the deep
approached the enemy, Stanley caused
a proclamation to be made to them, in
deep and awful tones, that if they did
not surrender at once their whole island
would be blown to pieces. This strata-
gem had the desired effect ; the Wavu-
ma were terror-stricken and surrendered
unconditionally. Two hours later they
sent a canoe and fifty men with the
tribute demanded. Thus ended the
war and preparations were at once made
to advance.

Stanley turned toward Lake Tangan-
yika, and camped at Ujiji, where he
had met David Livingstone. Thence
he journeyed to Nyangwe, the farthest
northern place attained by Cameron.
Cameron had gone south to Benguela.

Famous Tipo-tipo.

While in the vicinity of Nyangwe,
Stanley chanced to meet the famous
trader, Tipo-tipo, who had befriended
Cameron while on his journey, having
conducted him as far as Kasongo's
country. From him he learned that
Cameron had been unable to explore
the Lualaba, and thus the work which
Livingstone had not been able to com-
plete was as yet unfinished.

Not believing, as Livingstone did,
that the Lualaba was the remote south-
ern branch of the Nile, but having the
same conviction as Cameron, that it was
connected with the Congo, and was
the eastern part of that river, and hav-
ing, what I^ivingstone and Cameronhad
not, an ample force and sufficient sup-
plies, he determined to follow the Lu-
alaba, and ascertain whither it led.
He met with the same diffictilty that

STANLEYS JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

285

lyivingstone and Cameron encountered
in the unwillingness of the -people to
supply canoes.

They informed him, as they had the
two previous explorers, that the tribes
dwelling to the north on the Lualaba
were fierce and warlike cannibals, who
would suflfer no one to enter their terri-
tories, as the Arab traders had fre-
quently found to their cost. That be-
tween Nyangwe and the cannibal region
the natives were treacherous, and that
the river ran through dreadful forests,
through which he would have to make
his way — information which afterwards
proved to be true.

The Terrible Dwarfs.
He nevertheless resolved to go ; but
it was not easily accomplished, as the
people of Nyangwe filled his followers
with terror by the accounts they gave
of the ferocious cannibals, the dwarfs
with poisoned arrows who dwelt near
the river, and the terrible character of
the country through which they would
have to pass ; which had such a dis-
heartening effect upon them that diffi-
culties arose which would have been
insurmountable to any one but a man
of Stanley's indomitable perseverance,
sagacity and tact. He overcame all
obstacles ; succeeded in getting canoes,
and in engaging an Arab chief and his
followers to accompany him a certain
distance ; an increase of his force which
gave confidence to his own people.

Of course there was a good deal of
palavering before the Arab, Tipo-tipo,
could be induced to join the expedition
and brave the inevitable perils that
would attend it.

Tipo tipo listened respectfully to
Stanley's proposition, and then called

in one of his officers who had been to
the far north along the river, requesting
him to impart such information as he
possessed in regard to the people inhab-
iting that country. This man told a
marvelous tale, almost rivaling the
wonderful creations of the Arabian
Nights ; and Stanley subsequently
learned by his own experience that
much of the story was true.

Remarkable Story.

" The great river," said Tipo-tipo's
officer, " goes always towards the north,
until it empties into the sea. We first
reached Uregga, a forest land, where
there is nothing but woods, and woods,
and woods, for days and weeks and
months. There was no end to the woods.
In a month we reached Usongora Meno,
and here we fought day after day. They
are fearful fellows and desperate. We
lost many men, and all who were slain
were eaten. But we were brave and
pushed on.

" When we came to Kima-Kima we
heaid of the land of the little men,
where a tusk of ivory could be pur-
chased for a single cowrie (bead). No-
thing now could hold us back. We
crossed the Lumami, and came to the
land of the Wakuma. The Wakuma
are big men themselves, but among
them we saw some of the dwarfs, the
queerest little creatures alive, just a
yard high, with long beards and large
heads.

" The dwarfs seemed to be plucky
little devils, and asked us many ques-
tions about where we were going and
what we wanted. They told us that in
their country was so much ivory we
had not enough men to carry it ; ' but
what do you want with it, do you eat

286

STANLEVS JOURNEYS ACROSvS AFRICA.

it ?' said they. ' No, we make charms
of it, and will give you beads to show
us the way.' ' Good, come along.'

Must See Their King.

"We followed the little devils six
days, when we came to theii country,
and they stopped and said we could go
no further until they had seen their
king. Then they left us, and after
three days they came back and took us
to their village, and gave us a house to
live in. Then the dwarfs came from
all parts. Oh ! it is a big country ! and
everybody brought ivory, until we had
about four hundred tusks, big and little,
as much as we could carry. We bought
it with copper, beads, and cowries. No
cloths, for the dwarfs were all naked,
king and all. We did not starve in the
dwarf land the first ten days. Bananas
as long as my arm, and plantains as
long as the dwarfs were tall. One plan-
tain was sufficient for a man ^or one
day.

'' When we had sufficient ivory and
wanted to go, the little king said no ;
' this is my country, and you shall not
go until I say. You must buy all I
have got; I want more cowries;' and
he ground his teeth and looked just like
a wild monkey. We laughed at him,
for he was very funny, but he would
not let us go. Presently we heard a
woman scream, and rushing out of our
house, we saw a woman running with
a dwarf's arrow in her bosom.

"Some of our men shouted, 'The
dwarfs are coming from all the villages
in great numbers ; it is war — prepare ! '
We had scarcely got our guns before
the little wretches were upon us,
shooting their arrows in clouds. They
screamed and yelled like monkeys.

Their arrows were poisoned, and many
of our men who were hit, died.

' ' Our captain brandished his two-
handed sword, and cleaved them as you
would cleave a banana. The arrows
passed through his shirt in many places.
We had many good fellows, and they
fought well ; but it was of no use. The
dwarfs were firing from the tops of the
trees ; they crept through the tall grass
close up to us, and shot their arrows in
our faces. Then some hundred of us
cut down banana- trees, tore doors out,
and houses down, and formed a boma
at each end ot the street, and then we
were a little better off, for it was not
such rapid, random shooting ; we fired
more deliberately, and after several
hours drove them off

Caught the King.

' ' But they soon came back and fought
us all that night, so that we could get
no water, until our captain — oh ! he was
a brave man, he was a lion ! — held up
a shield before him, and looking around,
he just ran straight where the crowd
was thickest ; and he seized two of the
dwarfs, and we who followed him
caught several more, for they would
not run away until they saw what our
design was, and then they left the watei
clear. We filled our pots and carried
the little Shaitans (devils) into the
boma ; and there we found that we had
caught the king. We wanted to kill
him, but our captain said no, kill the
others and toss their heads over the
wall ; but the king was not touched.

" Then the dwarfs wanted to make
peace, but they v/ere on us again in the
middle of the night, and their arrows
sounded ' twit,' ' twit ' in all directions.
At last we ran away, throwing down

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

287

everything but our guns and swords.
But many of our men were so weak by
hunger and thirst that they burst their
hearts running, and died. Others lying
down to rest found the little devils close
to them when too late, and were killed.
Out of our great number of people only
thirty returned alive, and I am one of
them."

Stanley listened with rapt attention
to the recital of this wonderful story,
and at its conclusion he said: "Ah!
good. Did you see anything else very
wo'iderful on your journey ? ' '

Huge Serpents.

' ' Oh yes ! There are monstrous ooa-
constrictors in the forest of Uregga,
suspended by their tails to the branches,
waiting for the passerby or for a stray
antelope. The ants in that forest are
not to be despised. You cannot travel
without your body being covered with
them, when tliey sting you like wasps.
The leopards are so numerous that you
cannot go very far without seeing one.
Every native wears a leopardskin cap.

" The sokos (gorillas) are in the
woods, and woe befall the man or woman
met alone by them ; for they run to you
and seize your hands, and bite the fin-
gers off one by one, and as fast as they
bite oue off, they spit it out. The
Wasongora Meno and Waregga are can-
nibals, and unless the force is very
strong, they never let strangers pass. It
is nothing but constant fighting. Only
two years ago a party armed with three
hundred guns started north of Uson-
gora Meno ; they only brought sixty
guns back, and no ivory. If one tries
fo go by the river, there are falls after
falls, which carry the people over and
drown them."

It required no little heroism on the
part of Stanley to face the dangers
which he knew must lie between him
and that point one thousand eight hun-
dred miles distant, where the Congo,
ten miles wide, rolls into the broad
bosom of the Atlantic. Notwithstand-
ing all the dangers which lay before
them, Tipo-tipo agreed to accompany
Stanley with his soldiers, the distance
of sixty marches, for $5,000. One would
naturally suppose that he, of all others,
would shrink from such a task, seeing
that in his last effort to reach the unex-
plored territory beyond, he had lost five
hundred men.

Exacting Conditions.

The conditions under which he agreed
to escort Stanley were, that the sixty
marches should not consume more than
three months' time, and if, when they
had gone that distance, he should come
to the conclusion that he could not
reach the mouth of the Congo, then he
would return to Nyangwe ; or, if he
chanced to fall in with any Portuguese
traders, and desired to accompany them
to the coast, he should give him (Tipo-
tipo) two-thirds of his force, as a guard
to protect him while on his return to
Nyangwe.

But Stanley did not propose to have
all the conditions on the side of the
chief, and after refusing to grant the
chief two-thirds of his force to protect
him on his return, he made the follow-
ing condition : Should Tipo-tipo fail to
perform faithfully his part, and should
he through fear return before the sixty
marches had been made, he should for-
feit the $5,000, and not be allowed a
single man of Stanley's force to accom-
pany him on his return. After some

288

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

delay the chief assented to the contract
as written by Stanley, and both men
signed it.

Before it had been signed, however,
Stanley went to Pocock and told him
just how matters stood, and showed him
the dangers which must attend any
attempt to proceed, but could they do
so, it would draw upon the expedition
the comments of the entire world. It
was a fearful risk to run, but Pocock
resolved to stand by him, and before he
had finished, the latter replied, "Go
on."

Ah, they little knew when they made
that agreement, what fate awaited them
in the near future. The men were
next informed of the determination to
push on to the coast, and were told that
if at the end of sixty marches they fell
in with traders going eastward, and
they wished to return to Nyangwe they
could do so. The men promised to
remain with him, and he hastened to
complete his arrangements.

Journey Begun.

On November 5 th Tipo-tipo, with
seven hundred men joined Stanley, and
they set out on their journey. Stanley
now carried the Lady Alice across the
350 miles which intervened between
Ujiji and Nyangwe, which is situated
on the Lualaba (of Livingstone), which
Stanley as well as Cameron believed
was a branch of the Congo. We shall
now follow Stanley briefly in his dis-
covery along that river, which he had
determined to explore.

On the 5th of November he set out.
He reinforced his following, and took
supplies for six months. He had with
him 1 40 rifles and seventy spearmen
and could defy the warlike tribes of

which he had heard so much, and he
made up his mind to "stick to the
Lualaba fair or foul!" For three
weeks he pushed his way along the
banks, meeting with tremendous diffi-
culties, till all became disheartened.
Stanley said he would try the river.
The Lady Alice was put together and
launched, and then the leader declared
he would never quit it until he reached
the sea. "All I ask," said he to his
men, "is that you follow me in the
name of God."

"In the name of God, master, we
will follow you," they replied. They
did, bravely.

Paissing the Rapids.

A skirmish occurred at the outset, by
the Ruiki river, and then the Ukassa
rapids were reached. These were passed
in safety, one portion of the expedition
on the bank, the remainder in canoes.
So the journey continued, but under
very depressing circumstances, for the
natives, when not hostile, openly left
their villages, and would hold no com-
munication with the strangers. Sick-
ness was universal. Small-pox, dysen-
tery, and other diseases raged, and
every day a body or two was tossed into
the river. A canoe was found, repaired,
and constituted the hospital, and so was
towed down stream.

On the 8th of December a skirm-
ish occurred, but speedily ended in
the defeat of the savages, who had
used poisoned arrows. At Vinya-Njara
again, another serious fight ensued,
the savages rushing against the stock-
ades which surrounded the camp,
and displaying great determination.
The attack was resumed at night. At
daybreak, a part of the native town

t*?

CAPTAIN DREYFUS BEFORE THE COURT-MARTIAL AT RENNES, FRANCE

IN DECEMBER, 1894, HE WAS TRIED BY COURT-MARTIAL AND CONVICTED OF TREASON. IN

JUNE, 1899, HE WAS RETURNED FROM EXILE FOR A NEW TRIAL, WHICH RESULTED

AGAIN IN CONVICTION. WITH A RECOMMENDATION TO MERCY. HE WAS

IMMEDIATELY PARDONED BY PRESIDENT LOUBET

PROF. CHARLES E.

COPYRI HTi lauo, ey QESSFORD * VAN BRUNK

TRIPLER

HE IS TO LIQUID AIR WHAT EDISON IS TO ELECTRICITY. THIS NEW AND GREAT DISCOVERY IS
DESTINED TO REVOLUTIONIZE EVERYTHING PERTAINING TO THE SUPPLY OF MOTIVE POWER
FOR TRANSPORTATION, MACHINERY, REFRIGERATION, MANUFACTURE OF POWERFUL EVPlOS
VES, Etc. THE ABOVE ILLUSTRATION SHOWS A HAMMER OF FROZEN MERCURY.

THE BALLOON USED IN MODERN WARFARE

QUEEN VICTORIA LISTENING TO A DISPATCH
OF WAR IN SOUTH AFRICA

FROM THE SEAT

J

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

289

was occupied, and there again the fighr-
ing was continued. The village was
held, but the natives were still deter-
mined and again attacked ; the arrows
fell in clusters, and it was a very critical
time for the voyagers.

Mutiny in Camp.

Fortunately the land division arrived
and settled the matter ; the savages
disappeared, and the marching detach-
ment united with Stanley's crews. That
night Pocock was sent out to cut away
the enemy's canoes and that danger was
over. But now the Arab escort which
had joined Stanley at Nyangwe became
rebellious, and infected the rest. Stan-
ley feared that all his people would
mutiny, but he managed them with a
firm and friendly hand. So that danger
passed. All this time the people had
been dying of fever, small -pox, and
poisoned arrows, and the constant at-
tacks of the enemy prevented burial of
the dead or attendance on the sick and
wounded.

On the 26th of December, after a
merry Christmas, considering the cir-
cumstances, the expedition embarked,
149 in all, and not one deserted. To-
morrow would echo the cry " Victory
or Death." The explorers passed into
the portals of the Unknown, and on
4tli January they reached a series of
cataracts, now named Stanley Falls.
This was a cannibal country, and the
man-eaters hunted the voyagers " like
game.'' For four and twenty days the
conflict continued, fighting, foot by foot,
the forty miles or so which were cov-
ered by the cataracts, and which the
expedition had to follow by land, forag-
ing, fighting, encamping, dragging the
fleet of canoes, all the time with their
'9

lives in their hands, cutting their way
through the forest and their deadly
enemies.

Yet as soon as he had avoided the
cannibals on land, they came after him
on the water. A flotilla of fifty-four
canoes, some enormous vessels, with a
total of nearly two thousand warriors,
were formidable obstacles in the way.
But gun-powder won the day, and the
natives were dispersed with great loss,
the village plundered of its ivory, which
was very plentiful, and the expedition
in all this lost only one man, making
the sixteenth since the expedition had
left Nyangwe.

Grand Cataracts.

Some of the cataracts Stanley de-
scribes as magnificent, the current boil-
ing and leaping in brown waves six
feet high. The width in places is 2,000
and 1,300 feet narrowing at the falls.
After the great naval battle, Stanley
found friendly tribes who informed him
the river, the Lualaba, which he had
named the Livingstone, was surely the
Congo, or the River of Congo. Here
was a great geographical secret now
disclosed, and success seemed certain.
It was attained, but at a great price, as
we shall see. More battles followed
the peaceful days ; then the friendly
tribes were again met with, and so on,
until the warfare with man ceased, and
the struggle with the Congo began in
earnest.

There are fifty-seven cataracts and
rapids in the course of the river from
Nyangwe to the ocean, a distance of
eighteen hundred miles. One portion
of one hundred and eighty miles took
the explorers five months. The high
cliffs and the dangerous banks required

290

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

the greatest caution to pass, and had
Stanley not determined to cling to the
river ; had he led his men by land past
the cataract region, he would have done
better, as the events prove. During that
terrible passage he lost precious lives,
including the brave Pocock and Kalulu
— the black boy, Stanley's favorite who
proved to be of great service.

Livingstone Falls.

March 12th found them in a wide
reach of the river, named Stanley Pool,
and below that they " for the first time
heard the low and sullen thunder of
Ivivingstone Falls." From this date
the river was the chief enemy, and at
the cataracts the stream flows "at the
rate of thirty miles an hour!" The
canoes suffered or were lost in the
" cauldron," and portages became nec-
essary. The men were hurt also ; even
Stanley had a fall, and was half stunned.
There were sundry workers, and seven-
teen canoes remaining on the 27th of
March.

The descent was made along the
shore below Rocky Island Falls, and in
gaining the camping-place Kalulu, in
the " Crocodile " canoe, was lost. This
boat got into mid-stream, and went glid-
ing over the smooth, swift river to de-
struction. Nothing could save it or its
occupants. It whirled round three or
four times, plunged into the depths,
and Kalulu and his canoe-mates were
no more. Nine men, including others
in other canoes, were lost that day.

Says Stanley; "I led the way down
the river, and in five minutes was in a
new camp in a charming cove, with the
cataract roaring loudly about 500 yards
below us. A canoe came in soon after
with a gleeful crew, and a second one

also arrived safe, and I was about con-
gratulating myself for having done a
good day's work, when the long canoe
which Kalulu had ventured in was seen
in mid-river, rushing with the speed of
a flying spear towards destruction. A
groan of -horror burst from us as we
rushed to the rocky point which shut
the cove from view of the river.

"When we had reached the point,
the canoe was half-way over the first
break of the cataract, and was then just
beginning that fatal circling in the
whirlpool below. We saw them signal-
ing to us for help ; but alas! what could
we do there, with a cataract between
us ? We never saw them more. A pad-
dle was picked up about forty miles
below, which we identified as belong-
ing to the unfortunate coxswain, and
that was all."

An Untimely Death.

Stanley felt this loss keenly, tor he
loved Kalulu almost like a younger
brother. The boy had been presented
to him by the Arabs of Unyanyembe on
the occasion of his first visit there in
search of Livingstone. He was then a
mere child, but very bright and quick
for one of his race and age. Stanley
took him to the United States, where
he attended school eighteen months,
and rapidly developed into an intelli-
gent and quick-witted youth. Wher
Stanley was preparing for his secon(^
expedition Kalulu begged to be allowed
to accompany him, and he cheerfully
granted the request. His untimely
death made so deep an impression upon
Stanley that he named the fatal cataract
Kalulu Falls in honor of his memory.

Three out of the four men contained
in the boat were special favorites of

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

291

Stanley. They had been deceived by
the smooth, glassy appearance of the
river, and had pulled out boldly into
the middle of it, only to meet a dreadful
fate. Even while they gazed upon the
spot where the frail craft was last seen
upon the edge of the brink, another
canoe came into sight, and was hurried
on by the swift current towards the
yawning abyss. As good fortune would
have it, they struck the falls at a point
less dangerous than that struck by the
unfortunate Kalulu, and passed them
in safety. Then they worked the canoe
closer to the shore, and springing over-
board, swam to the land. If those yet
to come were to be deceived by the ap-
pearance of the river, Stanley saw that
he was destined to lose the greater part
of his men.

"I Am Lost, Master."
In order to prevent so sad a calamity,
he sent messengers up the river to tell
those yet to come down to keep close
to the shore. Before they had time to
reach those above, another canoe shot
into sight and was hurried on to the
edge of the precipice. It contained but
one person — the lad Soudi, who, as he
shot by thein, cried out : " There is but
one God — I am lost, master." The next
instant he passed over the falls. The
canoe, after having passed the falls, did
not sink, but was whirled round and
round by the swift current, and was at
last swept out of sight behind a neigh-
boring island. The remainder of the
canoes succeeded in reaching the camp
in safety.

The natives at this point proved very
friendly, and exchanged provisions for
beads and wire. Having obtained all the
provisions that they could conveniently

^ carry, they prepared to start, and on
the first of April succeeded in passing
round the dangerous falls, when they
again went into camp. A great sur-
prise awaited them here. They had
scarcely pitched their tents, when to
their great surprise Soudi suddenly
walked into the camp. It was as though
one had indeed risen from the dead, and
for a few minutes they could scarcely
realize that it was the real Soudi that
they beheld, and not his ghost. Great
was their joy when the lad assured them
that it was himself and not his spirit
that they saw.

Swam Ashore.

Seated around their camp they list-
ened to the strange tale that the boy
had to tell him. He had been carried
over the falls, and when he reached the
bottom he was somewhat stunned by
the shock, and did not fully recover
his senses until the boat struck against
a large rock ; he then jumped out and
swam ashore. He had hardly placed
his foot upon the land before he was
seized by two men, who bound him
hand and foot, and carried him to the
top of a large mountain near by. They
then stripped him, and examined him
with great curiosity. On the day fol-
lowing, a large number of the tribe who
dwelt upon the mountain came to see
him, and among them was one who had
previously visited Stanley's camp, and
knew that Soudi was attached to his
force.

He told them great stories about
Stanley, how terrible he was, and what
strange arms he carried, which were so
arranged that they could be fired all
day without stopping, and ended b;^
telling them that if they wished to es-

292

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

cape his fury, they had better return
the boy to the place from which they
had taken him. Terrified by such tales,
these men at once carried Soudi to the
place where they had found him, and
after having told him to speak a good
word for them to his master, departed.
He at once swam across the stream,
stopping occasionally upon the rocks
to rest, and succeeded at last in reach-
in g^ the camD soon after it had been
established. His captors, however, did
not return to their people as he had
supposed, but crossing the river at a
point lower down, they soon after ar-
rived at the camp and attached them-
selves to Stanley's force.

Singular Mishap.

The dangers attending Stanley con-
stantly in this great journey from sea
to sea are strikingly illustrated by a
mishap which befell one of his men in
that part of the tour we are now de-
scribing.

At one point there were many islands
in the river, which often afforded Stan-
ley refuge when attacked by the mur-
derous natives. They appeared very
beautiful, but the travellers could not
enjoy their beauty, so frequent were
the attacks made upon them. Stanley
visited several villages, in which he
says he found human bones scattered
about, just as we would throw away
oyster shells after we had removed the
bivalves. Such sights as this did not
tend to place the men in the most agree-
able state of mind, for it seemed to
them just as if they were doomed to a
similar fate.

On the following day they began
to make preparations for passing the
rapids which lay below them. In order

to do this, he must first drive back the
savages which lined the shore. Land-
ing with thirty-six men, he succeeded
in doing so, after which he was able to
cut a passage three miles long around
the falls. Stations were established at
different points along the route, and
before daylight the canoes were safely
carried to the first of these.

Hard Travelling.

The savages then made aii attacic
upon them, but were beaten off. At
night the boats were carried to the next
station, and the one following to the
next, and so on, until at the end of
seventy-eight hours of constant labor,
and almost unceasing fighting, they
reached the river. But they had gone
but a short distance, when they found
that just before them were a series of
rapids extending two miles. These
being much smaller than those they
had passed before, an attempt was made
to float the boats down them.

Six canoes passed the falls in safety,
but the seventh was upset. One of the
persons in it was a negro named Zaidi,
who, instead of swimming to the shore
as the others did, clung to the boat and
was hurried on to the cataract below
him. The canoe did not, however, pass
immediately over, but striking a rock
which stood upon the very edge of the
falls, it was split, one part passing over,
while the other was jammed against
the rock. To this Zaidi clung in terror,
while the waves dashed angrily around
him.

Instead of attempting to render assist-
ance to the endangered man, the natives
stood upon the shore and howled most
unmercifully, and at last sent for Stan-
ley. The latter at once set them at

STANLEY'S JOURNKYS ACROSS AFRICA.

29h

work making a rattan rope, by which
he proposed to let a boat down to the
man, into which he could get and be
pulled ashore.

But the rope proved too weak, and
was soon snapped in twain and the boat
carried over the falls. Other and stouter
ropes were then laid up, three pieces of
which were fastened to a canoe. But
it was useless to send the boat out with-
out some one to guide it to the place
where Zaidi was, and Stanley looked
about for volunteers. No one seemed
inclined to undertake the dangerous
job, until the brave Uledi quietly said,
" I will go." And he did. Two of the
cables attached to the boat were held
by men on the shore, while the third
was to be used to enable the poor wretch
upon the rock to reach the boat. Sev-
eral efforts were made to place it within
his reach, but each in turn failed.

Over the Falls.

At last, however, he grasped it, and
orders were given for the boat to be
pulled ashore. No sooner were the
cables tightened than they snapped like
small cords, and Zaidi was carried over
the falls ; but holding on to the rope,
he pulled the boat against the rock,
in which position it became wedged.
Uledi pulled him up and assisted him
into the boat, when they both scrambled
upon the rock. A rope was thrown to
them, but failed to reached the spot
where they were.

This was repeated several times, until
at last they succeeded in catching it.
A heavy rope was then tied to it, which
the men drew towards them and fas-
tened to the rock, and thus communi-
cation was established between those
upon the rock and those upon the shore.

By this time darkness shut in upon
them, and they were forced to leave the
men upon their wild perch, and wait
for another day before attempting to get
them oflf. The next day they succeeded
in drawing them both to the shore.

Lost in the Whirlpool.

On June 3d another accident occurred
at Masassa whirlpool, which was more
deplorable than all the others. Frank
Pocock, who had been Stanley's main-
stay and next in command to himself,
attempted to shoot the rapids against
the advice of his experienced boatman,
Uledi, who was the bravest native con-
nected with the expedition, though a
Zanzibar freed man.

Pocock was warned of the danger of
such an undertaking, but with a rash-
ness quite unlike himself he ordered
the canoe pushed out into the stream.
As they approached nearer and nearer
the mad breakers Frank realized his
peril, but it was too late. They were
soon caught in the dreadful whirl of
waters and sucked under with a mighty
force sufficient to swallow up a ship.
Pocock was an expert swimmer, but
his art did not now avail him, for he
was swept away to his death, though
his eight companions saved themselves.

The dreadful news was borne to
Stanley by the brave Uledi. This last
and greatest calamity, coming in the
midst of his already heavy weight of
woe, so overcame the great explorer
that he wept bitter tears of anguish.

" My brave, honest, kindly-natured
Frank," he exclaimed, "have you left
me so ? Oh, my long-tried friend, what
fatal rashness ! Ah, Uledi, had you but
saved him, I should have made you a
rich man."

294

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

Of the three brave boys who sailed
away from England with Stanley to
win the laurels of discovery in the un-
known wilds of Africa, not one was
left, but all were now slumbering for
eternity, in that strange land, where
the tears of sorrowing friends and
relatives could never moisten their rude
beds of earth.

The descent by river had cost Stan-
ley Pocock, many of the natives, i8,-
cx)0 dollars worth of ivory, twelve
canoes, and a mutiny, not to mention
grave anxiety and incessant cares and
conflicts. After a weary time, nearly
starved, the remainder of the expedi-
tion, reduced to 1 1 5 persons, sent on to
Embomma a message for help and food.
The letter was as follows :

"Village Nsanda,

August 4th, 1877.
" To any gentleman who speaks
English at Embomma^

' ' Dear Sir : — I have arrived at this
place from Zanzibar with one hundred
and fifteen souls, men, women and chil-
dren. We are now in a state of immi-
nent starvation. We can buy nothing
from the natives, for they laugh at our
kinds of cloth, beads and wire. There
are no provisions in the country that
may be purchased except on market-
days, and starving people cannot afford
to wait for these markets. I have
therefore made bold to despatch three
of my young men, natives of Zanzibar,
with a boy named Robert Fergui, of
the English mission at Zanzibar, with
this letter, craving relief from you.

"I do not know you, but I am told
there is an Englishman at Embomma,
and as you are a Christian and a gen-
tleman, I beg of you not to disregard

my request. The boy Robert will be
better able to describe jur condition
than I can tell you in a letter. We are
in a state of great distress, but, if your
supplies arrive in time, I may be able
to reach Embomma in four days. I
want three hundred cloths, each four
yards long, of such quality as you trade
with, which is very different from that
we have ; but better than all would be
ten or fifteen man-loads of rice or grain
to fill their pinched bellies immediately,
as even with the cloths it would require
time to purchase food, and starving
men cannot wait.

Must Have Supplies.
"The supplies must arrive within
two days, or I may have a fearful time
of it among the dying. Of course I
hold myself responsible for any expense
you may incur in this business. What
is wanted is immediate relief, and I
pray you to use your utmost energies
to forward it at once. For myself, if
you have such little luxuries as tea,
coffee, sugar and biscuit by you, such
as one man can easily carry, I beg you,
on my own behalf, that you will send
a small supply, and add to the great
debt of gratitude due to you upon the
the timely arrival of supplies for my
people. Until that time, I beg you to
believe me

" Yours sincerely,

" H. M. Stanley,
" Commanding Anglo-American Expe-^
'■'' dition for Exploration of Africa.

" p. S. — You may not know m>
name ; I therefore add, I am the person
that discovered Livingstone.

"H, M.S.."

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

29ft

When the letter was finished, Stanley
gathered his men around him, and told
them that he intended to send to Em-
bomma for food, and desired to know
who among them would go with the
guides and carry the letter. No sooner
had he asked the question, than Uledi
sprang forward, exclaiming, " O, mas-
ter, I am ready!" Other men also
volunteered, and on the next day they
set out with the guides.

Deserted by the Guides.
Before they had got half way, the
guides left them, and they had to find
their way as best they could. Passing
along the banks of the Congo, they
reached the village soon after sunset, and
delivered the letter into the hands of a
kindly disposed person. For thirty
hours the messengers had not tasted
food, but they were now abundantly
supplied. On the following morning
—it was the 6th of August— they
started to return, accompanied by car-
riers who bore provisions for the half-
starving men, women, and children,
with Stanley.

Meanwhile, he and his weary party
were pushing on as fast as their tired
and wasted forms would let them. At
nine o'clock in the morning they
stopped to rest. While in this situation,
an Arab boy suddenly sprang from his
seat upon the grass, and shouted :
" I see Uledi coming down the hill!"
Such was indeed the fact, and as the
jaded men wearily turned their eyes to
the hill, half expecting to be deceived,
they beheld Uledi and Kacheche run-
ning down the hill, followed by carriers
loaded with provisions. It was a glad
sight to them, and with one accord they
shouted: ''La H Allah, il Allah/''

(' ' We are saved, thank God ! " ) Uledi
was the first to reach the camp, and at
once delivered a letter to his master.

Thanks for Supplies.
By the time Stanley had finished
reading it, the carriers arrived with the
provisions, and need we say that those
half-starved people did them justice?
Deeply grateful for the substantial ans-
wer to his letter, he immediately penned
another, acknowledging their safe ar-
rival. The letter ran as follows :

"Dear Sirs:— Though strangers I
feel we shall be great friends, and it
will be the study of my lifetime to re-
member my feelings of gratefulness
when I first caught sight of your sup-
plies, and my poor faithful and brave
people cried out, ' Master, we are saved
—food is coming!' The old and the
young men, the women and the child-
ren lifted their wearied and worn-out
frames and began lustily to chant an
extemporaneous song in honor of the
white people by the great salt sea (the
Atlantic), who had listened to their
prayers. I had to rush to my tent to
hide the tears that would come, despite
all my attempts at composure.

" Gentlemen, that the blessing of God
may attend your footsteps, whitherso-
ever you go, is the very earnest prayer of
" Yours faithfully,

" Henry M. Stanley."

It was a daring undertaking — that of
marching from one ocean to the other
through the wilds of Africa — but it was
done. The great feat was accomplished.
The magnificent miracle was performed.
Heroism and self-sacrifice had their sub-
lime triumph. Perils and hardships be-
set the expedition from first to last.

298

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

Mr. Stanley's own words can best de-
scribe them.

" On all sides," he says, "death stared
us in the face; cruel eyes watched us
by day and by night, and a thousand
bloody hands were ready to take ad-
vantage of the least opportunity. We
defended ourselves like men who knew
that pusillanimity would be our ruin
among savages to whom mercy is a
thing unknown. I wished, naturally,
that it might have been otherwise, and
looked anxiously and keenly for any
sign of forbearance or peace. My anx-
iety throughout was so constant, and
the effects of it, physically and other-
wise, have been such, that I now
find myself an old man at thirty-
five."

Had Seen Hard Service.

As if to give force to this last state-
ment, the President of the American
Geographical Society said : " It will be
remembered that when we saw Mr.
Stanley here in the Society, his hair
was black ; it is now said to be nearly
white. Of the 350 men with whom he
left Zanzibar in 1874, but 115 reached
the Atlantic coast, and 60 of those,
when at the journey's end, were suffer-
ing from dysentery, scurvy and dropsy.
He was on the Congo from November
I, 1876, to August 1 1, 1877 — a period of
over nine months ; so that his promise
to the native followers was fulfilled
that he would reach the sea before the
close of the year."

The historic Nile gave up the mys-
tery of its source, and the Congo was
no longer a puzzle, baffling the exploits
of modern exploration.

Stanley showed that the Lualaba is
the Congo, and opened up a splendid

water-way into the interior of the Dark
Continent, which the International
Association had already fixed upon, and
which rival explorers discussed with
more or less acrimony. Stanley put
together the puzzle of which Burton,
Speke, Livingstone, Baker, Du Chaillu,
and Cameron provided pieces, and made
the greatest geographical discovery of
the century — and of many centuries.
We cannot limit the results which will
accrue from this feat of Henry M. Stan-
ley in crossing the Dark Continent, over
which he shed the light of civilization.

Public Honors.

Stanley was received with great cere-
mony in England, and almost every
nation hastened to bestow its honors
upon him. But among them all he
singled out one, concerning which he
said: " For another honor I have to ex-
press my thanks — one which I may be
pardoned for regarding as more precious
than all the rest. The Government of
the United States has crowned my suc-
cess with its official approval, and the
unanimous vote of thanks passed in
both houses of Congress, has made me
proud for the life of the expedition and
its success."

Towards the end of 1886 Stanley was
summoned from America to take com-
mand of the expedition for the relief of
Emin Pasha, the great German ex-
plorer, who was lost in the wilds of
Africa. On February 22, 1887, he ar-
rived at Zanzibar ; on the 25 th he, his
officers and the Zanzibar porters, Soma-
lis and Soudanese soldiers sailed for the
mouth of the Congo, where they landed
on the 1 8th of March. On June 15th
the expedition had reached the village
of Yambuya, 1300 miles from the sea.

STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA.

m

on the left bank of the Aruwimi, 96
miles above its confluence with the
Congo.

Here Stanley divided his forces. He
left at Yambuya camp a large number
of loads, which were to be brought on
as soon as porters were provided by the
Arab traveller and merchantman, Tipo-
tipo. The entire force which left Zan-
zibar numbered, all told, 706 men.
Between Zanzibar,and Yambuya it was
reduced to 649. Of this number 389,
including Stanley and five Europeans,
made up the advance force, the garri-
son at Yambuya numbered 129, and a
contingent 131 strong was shortly to
join the Yambuyan camp from Bo-
lobo.

Major Barttelot was left in command
of the rear column, and on June 28th
Stanley set out on his forced march
through the forest. It is impossible to
follow here in detail the story of Stan-
ley's indomitable struggle with almost
insurmountable [obstacles. Disaster
overtook the rear column ; its leader.
Major Barttelot, was assassinated ; Jame-
son, the next in command, died of fever,
and Bonny alone remained at the camp.
For many months no news of Stanley
reached Europe ; then came rumors of
disaster; and finally the news that

Emin and Stanley had joined hands on
the shores of the Albert Nyanza.

The return journey was made by an
overland route to the east coast, and
Bagamoyo was reached on December
4, 1889. Apart from the main object
of Stanley's journey this expedition
established the existence of a vast tropi-
cal forest to the west of the lake coun-
try, and occupying the northern portion
of the Congo basin.

In 1890 Stanley, after recruiting his
health in Egypt and the South of
France, returned to London and met
with a reception almost royal in its
splendor. He was everywhere feasted
and feted. The Royal Geographical
Society bestowed on him a special gold
medal, and replicas were also presented
to his officers on the Emin Relief Ex-
pedition ; and Oxford, Cambridge, Ed-
inburg and Durham conferred on him
honorary degrees.

This is one of the most celebrated
expeditions on record. We now have
on the map of Africa what is known as
the Congo Free State, a name that did
not exist before the discoveries of Stan-
ley. His achievements in the dark
continent form one of the most inter-
esting, romantic and heroic chapters in
the annals of exploration.

CHAPTER XX.

Travels and Adventures of Vambery in Central Asia.

(5 1 HIS distinguished traveller is a
* I native of Hungary. Impelled

by the desire of ascertaining the
relation of his native language to the
Turco-Tartarian tongues, he went first
to Constantinople, whence, after sev-
eral years' residence, he set out for
Samarcand, the capital of the famous
conqueror, Timour.

Teheran, the modern capital of Per-
sia, was reached in the middle of July,
1862, but, owing to the war having
commenced between Dost Mohammed
and Ahmed Khan, the ruler of Herat,
he did not leave that city until the end
of the following March. As a means
of more readily accomplishing the ob-
jects of his journey, he assumed the
character of a dervish, or mendicant
pilgrim, on his way to the shrines of
Moslem saints. This character, his ac-
quaintance with Oriental languages,
and with Mohammedan manners and
customs, qualified him to assume with-
out much fear of detection ; and thus
it was that he left Teheran in company
with more than a score of Tartar pil-
grims, a motly group of merchants,
artisans, soldiers, and beggars, some
mounted on asses, others trudging on
foot, and mostly attired in the ragged
garb of mendicancy.

Taking a north-easterly course, up
the slopes of the Elburz mountains, the
travellers entered the great defile of
Mazendran, from which they looked
down upon the primaeval forests of the
brightest verdure.

298

From this defile they entered upon
the causeway made by Shah Abbas,
but now fast decaying, resting at night
in the midst of a beautiful forest of box.
Next day they reached Sari, the chief
town of Mazendran, and surrounded
by groves of orange and lemon trees,
the brightly-tinted fruit of which pre-
sented a charming contrast to their
dark green foliage. Here they had to
hire horses for a day's journey through
the marshes between the woods and
the shores of the Caspian Sea, on which
they were to voyage in a small coasting
vessel to Gomushtepe, a Turcoman vil-
lage at the western extremity of Alex-
ander's wall, which, according to the
dwellers in that region, was built by
genii at the Macedonian conqueror's
command.

The pilgrims lingered three weeks in
this place, much against the inclina-
tion of Vambery, and then continued
their journey in a north-easterly direc-
tion, all now riding camels or mules.
Their way lay at first over grassy plains
and through marshes, covered with tall
reeds, which swarmed with wild hogs.

The Persian mountains had now dis-
appeared, and all around them, as far
as they could see, stretched verdant
plains, dotted here and there with a
few tents, near which camels were
grazing. The verdure ceased, and they
found themselves entering upon the salt-
marsh through which the Etrek pursues
its sluggish course to the Caspian.

To avoid other marshes, formed by

'Travels and adventures in a^ia.

29^

the overflowing of the river, they had
to follow a zigzag course, for the most
part over a sandy tract, on which very
few tents were visible. Crossing the
Etrek with some difficulty, owing to
the softness of the bottom and its
flooded banks, they held a northward

them in ruins. Some other ruins were
seen on the northern summit of Koren-
taghi, but were passed in the night.

On the night of the 19th the caravan
was for a time in a position of great
peril. They were approaching the Lit-
tle Balkan ridge, at the foot of which

VIEW OF TEHERAN — '

course over a trackless waste, guided
during the day by the sun and at night
by the pole-star.

On the 1 6th of May the mountainous
ridge called the Korentaghi was dis-
cernible in a north-easterly direction,
and they passed the ruins known as the
Mesheni Misryan, which Vambery vis-
ited on the following day, and found to
be an ancient fortress, consisting of a
square keep, and four towers, two of

CAPITAL OF PERSIA.

are many dangerous salt-marshes, which
are not distinguishable from the firm
ground in their vicinity, owing to a
layer of salt which everywhere covers
the surface. Warned by the stopping
of the camels, all sprang down, and
found the ground quaking and yielding
beneath them. . Fear rendered every
one motionless until daybreak, whei?
they slowly and carefully effected a
retrograde movement, reaching the foot

800

TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA.

of the hills about ten o'clock next
morning.

Along the foot of these hills they
journeyed until the evening of the 21st,
when they reached the Great Balkan.
"The spot where we encamped," says
Vambery, "was not without its charms ;
for, as the setting sun projected its rays
upon the lovely valleys of the Little
Balkan, one could almost fancy oneself
actually in a mountainous district. The
view might even be characterized as
beautiful ; but there is the idea of a
fearful desolation, the immense aban-
donment which covers the whole, as it
were, with a veil of mourning."

The Route Lost.

On the following night about twelve
o'clock, just as they came upon a steep
declivity, the guide gave the word for
all to dismount, as they were entering
the ancient bed of Oxus, and the storms
and rains of the preceding winter had
washed away all traces of the route,
which had been tolerably well defined
during the summer. Crossing the old
course of the river in a crooked line,
in order to find a way out on the oppo-
site side, they succeeded by daybreak
in clambering out upon the plateau
beyond.

The pilgrims were at this time suf-
fering much from thirst, the springs
which they found having dwindled to
little pools of turbid and brackish water.
On the morning of the 24th they had
reached the extremity of the sandy
Wste over which they had been toiling,
and had their hopes of soon meeting
with drinkable water encouraged by
coming upon numerous footprints of
gazelles and wild asses. Some little
pools of yrain-water were presently

reached, and from this spot all the way
to Khiva the water-skins of the pil-
grims were always full.

They were now at the foot of the
plateau of Kaflankir, which rises like
an island out of a sea of sand, the
deep trench at its base, which the Tur-
comans told Vambery was the ancient
channel of the Oxus, forming the bound-
ary on that side of the Khanate of Khiva.
On this plateau the travellers observed
gazelles and wild asses grazing in large
herds. About noon on the second day
they were on it, a great cloud of dust
was seen towards the north, and the
Turcoman escort stood to their arms,
apprehensive of an attack.

Nearer and nearer came the dust-
cloud, as if raised by a charging squad-
ron of cavalry. Hundreds of hoofs were
clattering over the plateau. Presently
the sound ceased suddenly, as if the
troop had halted ; the cloud rolled away,
and an immense herd of wild asses was
seen drawn up in line. For a few
moments they gazed intently at the
cavalcade, and then galloped away.

Warm Reception.
Ozbeg villages now succeeded to the
brown tents of the wandering tribe of
the desert, and on the 2d of June the
domes and minarets of Khiva were
before them, rising above gardens, and
cultivated fields, and groves of poplars.
Vambery entered this town with his
nerves strung to their extremest ten-
sion, for he had heard that the Khan
condemned to slavery all suspected
strangers. He relied much, however,
on his knowledge of all the Khivites
of distinction who had been in Con-
stantinople, and especially of one, Shu-
krullah Bey, whom he had seen several

TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA.

301

times at the house of Ali Pacha, some-
time Minister of Foreign Affairs.

To Shukrullah Bey he accordingly
at once proceeded, introducing himself
as an Effendi who had made the Bey's
acquaintance in Constantinople, and
desired to oflfer respects in passing.
The Bey, though surprised, made eager
inquiries concerning his numerous
friends in the Ottoman capital, and the
events which had occurred since he
had left that city. Vambery answered
all his questions with the utmost readi-
ness, and, as he had anticipated, re-
ceived next day a present and invita-
tion from the Khan.

He found that potenate sitting on a
dais in the hall of audience, with his
right hand holding a golden sceptre and
his left resting on a velvet cushion.
The interview was satisfactory to both,
and at its termination the Khan wished
Vambery to accept a purse of twenty
ducats and an ass for his further jour-
ney ; and on the money being declined,
on the ground that dervishes are vowed
to poverty, his highness insisted upon
his visitor becoming his guest during
his brief stay in his capital.

A Fertile Country.
Our traveller did not linger long in
Khiva, for the heat was growing op-
pressive, and he wished to push on to
Bokhara before it became intolerable.
He now rode the ass presented to him
by the Khan, and employed the camel to
carry provisions, with which he was now
well supplied. The route pursued by
the caravan until the Oxus was reached
was through a fertile and well-cultivated
country, with mulberry trees bordering
the road, and their berries within reach
of the traveller who rode in their shade.

Flood-water rendered the Oxus so
wide that the farther bank was almost
indistinguishable. Owing to this ex-
tent of water, the passage occupied
from ten in the morning until sunset,
though the river proper was crossed in
half an hour. After passing over a few
miles of tolerably well cultivated land^
they entered upon a sandy tract, througk
which they pursued a south-easterly
course along the right bank of the river.
Here and there they came upon a few
Khirgis tents, at which they were
always sure of a draught of water or
milk, which the dust and the intense
heat must have rendered very acceptable.

Pleasant News.

On the fifth day of their journey
along the banks of the Oxus, which are
almost everywhere overgrown with wil-
lows, rushes, and tall sedges, they met
five horsemen, merchants returning
from Bokhara to Khiva, and learned
from them the pleasing intelligence
that the route was quite safe. This
communication set their minds at ease,
for they had heard on leaving Khiva
that the Tekke Turcomans, taking ad-
vantage of the absence of the Emir and
his army from Bokhara, were infesting
the approaches to that city.

Their agreeable reflections on this
score were disturbed soon after daybreak
next day, however, by meeting two men,
who informed them that they had been
robbed of their boots, their provisions,
and most of their clothing, by a band
of Tekke Turcomans, numbering about
a hundred and fifty. Their Afghan
guide, who had been twice robbed, and
narrowly escaped with his life, im-
mediately gave the word to retreat,
which was done with as much speed

302

TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA.

as was possible with heavily-laden
camels.

Having reached their last resting-
place — the ruins of an ancient fortress
on a green hill overlooking the Oxus —
they allowed the camels three hours'
rest and pasture, while filling their
water-skins, and then struck into the
desert, which seemed their only chance
of evading the plundering Tekke. It
was sunset when they left the ruins,
and a few stars were visible when they
reached the desert ; but the moon had
not yet risen to betray them to the
keen sight of the robber horde, and
they pursued their way in silence, the
feet of the camels treading almost
noiselessly upon the fine sand-

A Suggestive Name.

The night passed without an alarm.
" Our morning station," says Vambery,
"bore the charming appellation of
Adamkyrylgan (which means ' the place
where men perish'), and one needed
only to cast a look at the horizon to
convince himself how appropriate is
that name. Let the reader picture to
himself a sea of sand, extending as far
as eye can reach, on one side formed
into hills, like waves, lashed into that
position by the furious storm, on the
other side, again, like the smooth waters
of a still lake, merely rippled by the
west wind. Not a bird visible in the
air, not a worm or beetle upon the
earth ; traces of nothing but departed
life, in the bleaching bones of man or
beast that has perished, collected by
every passer-by in a heap, to guide the
march of future travellers."

They were now obliged, notwith-
standing the heat and dust, to use their
water sparingly, and they began to suf-

fer the tortures of thirst. Two of the
camels died, two of the pilgrims be-
came exhausted, and had to be bound
at length upon their camels, and on th^i
fourth day one of the sufferers died. So
slow was their progress that they were
not beyond the desert. And now, with
the mountains in sight, the hot wind
and the sand-cloud came, and they had
to dismount in haste, and lie prostrate
behind the camels, which fell on their
knees, and strove to bury their heads
in the sand. The dust-storm passed
over them, and left them covered with
a thick crust of hot sand.

Scarcity of Water.

Towards evening they reached a
spring, but its water was undrinkable,
and at midnight they started again,
fevered and feeble, and scarcely able to
move. Vambery slept from exhaustion,
and found himself in the morning in a
hut, surrounded by men, whom he
found to be Persian slaves, sent from
Bokhara by their masters to tend sheep,
By them, poor as they were, he and his
companions were hospitably and kindly
treated.

" I was much touched," he relates,
"to see amongst them a child five years
old, also a slave, of great intelligence.
He had been, two years before, cap-
tured and sold with his father. When
I questioned him about the latter, he
answered me confidingly, ' Yes ; my
father has bought himself (meaning
paid his own ransom) ; at longest I shall
only be a slave two years, for by that
time my father will have spared the
necessary money.' The poor child had
on him hardly anything but a few rags,
to cover his weak little body ; his skin
was of the hardness and color of

-fRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA.

SOS

leatTier. I gave him one of my own
articles of attire, and he promised to
have a dress made out of it for himself."
Leaving these unhappy slaves with
mingled feelings of compassion for

fear of robbers, hot winds, and empty
water-skins.' '

Their next station was a village called
Khakemir, in the midst of a tolerably
well-cultivated country, the whole dis-

DERVISHES AT PRAYER.

their condition and thankfulness for
their kindness, our travellers started
with the intention of making their
next station, at Khodja Oban, a place to
which pilgrims resort to visit the grave
of a Moslem saint; but they lost their
way at night among the sand hills, and
found themselves at daybreak on the
margin of a lake. They were now on
the borders of Bokhara, and free from

trict being watered by canals connected
with the river Zereshan. This was
crossed next day at a ford, though the
remains of a stone bridge were visible
on the farther side, near the ruins of a
palace said to have been built by the
renowned Abdullah Khan Sheibani.
The city of Bokhara was now before
them, its walls broken in many places,
and its buildings presenting no traces

304

TRAVEI.S AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA.

of its former grandeur, though it is still
vaunted by Bokhariots as the capital of
Central Asia.

Vambery says the wretchedness of the
streets and houses far exceed that of the
meanest in Persian cities, and the dust,
«, foot deep, give a poor idea of "noble
Bokhara," as the inhabitants call it;
the only thing which impressed him
being the strange and diversified mix
ture of races and costumes, which pre-
sent a striking spectacle to the eyes of
a stranger.

Vambery was well lodged here, and
had access to the best society ; but the
task of maintaining his assumed char-
acter was a difficult one, and it is
probable that only the sanctity supposed
to attach to that character guarded
his secret. He believed that he was
suspected, and that many devices were
resorted to with the view of causing
him to betray himself

Strange Traveller.
"One day," he says, "a servant of
the Vizier brought to me a little shriv-
elled individual, that I might examine
■^im, to see whether he was, as he pre-
tended, really an Arab from Damascus.
When he first entered, his features
struck me much — they appeared to me
European. When he opened his mouth,
my astonishment and perplexity in-
creased, for I found his pronunciation
anything rather than that of an Arab.
He told me that he had undertaken a
pilgrimage to the tomb of Djafen Ben
Sadik, at Khoten, in China, and wanted
to proceed on his journey that very day.
His features during our conversation
betrayed visible embarrassment, and it
was a subject of great regret to me that
I hnd not an occasion to see him a

second time, for I am strongly disposed
to think that he was playing a part
similar to my own."

Some of the pilgrims being left in
Bokhara, the caravan was reduced on
leaving that city to the occupants of a
couple of carts of very primitive con-
struction, in which they were jolted
in a most unpleasant manner, as the
wheels — far from perfect circles — rolled
through the deep sand or mud.

Shut Out of the City.

Night was chosen for starting, and as
the driver was not familiar with the
road he mistook the way, and it was
morning when the little town of Mezar
was reached. The journey was resumed,
therefore, after a brief halt, through a
fertile and well-cultivated country, more
refreshing to the eye than anything the
travellers had seen since they had left
the Pontos mountains behind them.

Next morning they reached Kette
Kurgan, where there is a fortress de-
fended by a strong wall and a deep
trench, and, the sun having set, the
gates were closed, and they had to lodge
at a caravanserai outside the walls.
Samarcand was reached on the sixth
day, and the first impression made by
its domes and minarets, brightened by
the sunbeams, and brought into relief
by a background of groves and gardens,
was very pleasing. Of this ancient city
to which so much historical interest at-
taches, Vambery says that " although it
equals Teheran in circumference, its
houses do not lie so close together ; still,
the prominent buildings and ruins offer
a far more magnificent prospect. The
eye is most struck by four lofty edifices,
in the form of half-domes, the fronts of
the Medresses (colleges).

TRAVELS AND ADVENTUEJES IN ASIA.

305

" As we advance, we p^erceive first a
small neat dome, and further to the
south a larger and more imposing one ;
the former is the tomb, the latter the
mosque, of Timour, Quite facing us,
on the south-westerly limit of the city,
on a hill, rises the citadel, round which
other mosques and tombs are grouped-
If we suppose the whole intermixed
with closely-planted gardens, we have a
faint idea of Samarcand."

Dazzling Splendor.

Like all eastern cities, this '* focus of
the whole globe," as a Persian poet
calls it, shows best at a distance ; but
many of its antiquities are interesting
even to Europeans. The summer pal-
ace of Timour retains much of its
ancient splendor, being approached by
an ascent of forty broad marble steps,
and containing apartments with mosaic
floors, the colors of which are as bril-
liant as if they had been executed by
the present generation of workmen.
Three flags, a breastplate, and an old
sword, doubtful relics of the great
Emir, were shown to our traveller by
the custodian.

The mosque of Timour has a melon-
shaped dome, and is rich in decorations
of colored bricks and inscriptions from
the Koran in gold letters. The mosque
of Shah Zindel exhibits similar mural
decorations, but they are defaced in
many places, and the arched gateway
shows the ravages of time in its broken
brickwork. The citadel contains the
reception-hall of Timour, with the cel-
ebrated green stone upon which the
conquering Emir had his throne placed.

The tomb of Timour consists of a
neat chapel, surmounted by a splendid
central dome and two smaller ones, and
20

surrounded by a wall, in which is a
high arched gate. The tomb is under
the central dome, and is covered with
a flat dark-green stone. The walls of
the chapel are covered internally with
alabaster, decorated with arabesque de-
signs in blue and gold.

The Emir's Parade.

Vambery was preparing for his de-
parture from Samarcand, where he
stayed only eight days, when the Emir,
returning from his victorious campaign
in Khokand, made his triumphal entry
into the city. There was a great crowd,
but no particular pomp was displayed.
Two hundred horsemen rode first, and
were followed by infantry, with flags
and drums.

"The Emir and all his escort," says
our traveller, "looked, with their snow-
white turbans and wide silk garments
of all the colors of the rainbow, more
like the chorus of women in the opera
of ' Nebuchadnezzar ' than a troop of
Tartar warriors. So also it may be
said with respect to other officers of the
Court, of whom some bore white staves
and others halbreds, that there was in
the whole procession nothing to remind
one of Turkestan, except in the fol-
lowers, of whom many were Kiptchaks,
and attracted attention by their Mongol
features and the arms which they
bore consisting of bows, arrows, and
shields."

The Emir held a public audience on
the following day, and Vambery pre-
sented himself, sustaining his well-
assumed character of a Mohamedan
pilgrim with his usual address, and
again with success. He was advised
by his friendSj however, to quit Samar-
cand with all speed, and gain as quickly

306

TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA.

as possible the farther bank of the
Oxus. He left the city by night, but
travelled slowly, on account of the
heat, passing through a well-cultivated
country, in a south-westerly direc-
tion; Herat, of which so much has
been heard of late in connection with
events in Afghanistan, being the next
goal.

Karshi, a town of considerable size
and commercial importance, was reach-
ed on the third day, and our traveller
was surprised to find there a public
garden, with flower-beds and tea-stalls,
on a scale which he had not found in
Bokhara or Saniarcand, or even in
Persia. He remained there three days,
and at sunrise on the second day of the
resumed journey reached the Oxus, on
the nearer bank of which stands a small
fort, and on the opposite side, on a
steep hill, the citadel, around which is
spread the frontier town of Kerki.

"Mother of Cities."
Having to wait here the arrival of
the caravan for Herat, he availed him-
self of the delay to visit the ruins of
ancient Balkh, styled by Oriental writ-
ers "the mother of cities." Only a
few heaps of earth are pointed out as
remains of the ancient Bactra, and
of the more modern ruins there is no-
thing more remarkable than a half-
demolished mosque, built by the Seld-
joukian Sultan Sandjar in the days
when Balkh was the centre of Moslem
':ivilization.

The caravan in which our traveller
turned his back upon the Khanate of
Bokhara consisted of four hundred
camels, nearly as many asses, and a
few horses. Some of the men were
pilgrims, others emancipated slaves re-

turi'ing to their native countries. The
country traversed was for some distance
a barren plain, then, as the north-west-
ern frontier of Afghanistan was ap-
proached, it became hilly.

A broad valley was threaded, and
then a steep mountain pass was trav-
ersed, so narrow that the caravan had
to wind through it in single file. Thence
they descended into a long valley,
through which the river Murgab ran
swiftly, in crossing which Vambery's
ass fell, and precipitated him into the
water, amidst the laughter of his com-
panions. The river was not deep,
however, and he escaped with no greater
mishap than a wetting.

Slow Travelling.

From this ford to Herat is reckoned
four days' journey for horses, but camels
require double that time, the country
being mountainous. It became wilder
and more picturesque as the travellers
advanced, the ruins of old castles
crowning the precipices between which
the Murgab pours its foaming stream.
Beyond the second pass they left the
river, and proceeded in a westerly di-
rection, reaching next day the ruins of
the town and fortress of Kale No, the
site of which was occupied by a few
tents of the Hezare, a tribe of mixed
Tartar and Persian descent.

Thence to Herat is twenty miles, but
the way lies over lofty mountains, and
requires four days for its accomplish-
ment. The highest summit was passed
on the second day, and was covered
with snow, so that the travellers suf-
fered severely from cold, in spite of the
great fires which they made when they
halted. Thence they descended a path
only a foot wide, along a ledge from

TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA.

307

which a precipice rose above a deep
ravine.

Rounding the shoulder of a mountain,
they looked down upon the broad and
fertile plains in which Herat stands,
dotted with villages, and intersected
by numerous canals. Trees only are
wanted to complete the charm of the
b.ndscape. The city, having been re-
cently besieged by Dost Mahomed,
presented a ruinous appearance.

' ' The houses which we passed, the
advanced works, the very gate," says
Vambery, " looked like a heap of rub-
bish. Near the latter is the citadel,
which, from its elevation, served as a
mark for the Afghan artillery ; it lies
there bidSted and half-demolished. The
doors and windows have been stripped
of their woodwork, for during the siege
the inhabitants suffered most from the
scarcity of fuel. Each step we advance
we see greater indications of devasta-
tion. Entire quarters of the town re-
main solitary and abandoned."

Means Exhausted.

Our traveller's resources were by this
time exhausted, and he was compelled
to sell his ass. He waited upon an en-
voy sent by the Governor of Khorassan
to the young Sirdar of Herat, Yakoub
Khan, in the hope of obtaining employ-
ment, but without success. His fellow-
travellers had dispersed, only one re-
maining with him — a young man who
had become attached to him, and event-
ually accompanied him to Pesth.

To leave no stone unturned, he waited
upon Yakoub Khan — then a lad of fif-
teen— who seemed to penetrate his secret
immediately; for, regarding him for a
moment with a look of surprise and
perplexity, he raised a finger, and smil-

ingly exclaimed, "I swear you are an
Englishman ! ' ' Before Vambery could
reply, he sprang from his chair, and,
clapping his hands, exclaimed, "Pardon
me ; but you are an Englishman, are
you not?" The traveller assumed a
grave look, and reminded the young
prince of the proverb attributed by tra-
dition to the prophet of Mecca, "He
who takes the believer for an unbeliever
is himself an unbeliever,"

Welcome from the Prince.

This rejoinder disconcerted Yakoub,
who resumed his seat, observing in an
apologetic tone that he had never before
seen a hadji from Bokhara with such a
physiognomy. Vambery replied that
he was not a Bokhariot, but a Stram-
bouli; and, producing his Turkish pass-
port, mentioned Yakoub's cousin, the
son of Akbar Khan, who was in Con-
stantinople in i860. The prince then
spoke very graciously to him, and in-
vited him to repeat his visit as often as
he could.

Two days before he left Herat our
traveller made an excursion to the vil-
lage of Gazerghiah, situated on an emi-
nence a league from the city, and con-
taining many memorials of antiquity,
dating from the time of Shah Rookh
Mirza, a son of Timour. Near the vil-
lage are the ruins of Mosalla, which
were also visited. The remains of the
mosque and sepulchre of Sultan Hoosein
Mirza, erected 891, displayed a large
amount of elaborate carving, many of
the stones being covered with inscrip-
tions from the Koran.

On the 15th of November, 1863, Vam-
bery quitted Herat with the great car-
avan bound for Meshed, and consistii^g
of 2,000 persons, about half of whom

308

TRAVEIvS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA.

were Hezare pilgrims from Cabul, and
a large proportion of the remainder
Afghan merchants from that city and

A PERSIAN OFFICIAL.

from Candahar. He obtained permis-
sion to ride upon a lightly-loaded camel
by representing that he should be able
to pay when the caravan reached Me-
shed ; but by this statement he raised
doubts of the genuineness of the char-

acter which he had assumed, so far with
success.

" The dubious light in which I stood,
afforded," he says, "a fund of interest-
ing surmises to those by whom I was
surrounded ; for whilst some of them
took me for a genuine Turk, others
were disposed to think me an English-
man ; the different parties even quar-
relled on the subject, and it was very
droll to observe how the latter began to
triumph over the former when it was
observed that, in proportion as we drew
near to Meshed, the bent posture of
humility of the dervish began more and
more to give way to the upright and in-
dependent deportment of the Euro-
pean."

Meshed was reached on the twelfth
day after the departure of the caravan
from Herat, and there our traveller was
hospitably received by Colonel Dol-
mage, who filled several important
offices under Murad Mirza, uncle of the
reigning Shah, and governor of the
city.

The disguise was now thrown off,
and, reflecting that the truth concern-
ing him would become known at Herat
on the return of the Afghans who had
travelled with him from that city, he
wrote to Yakoub Khan, avowing that
though not an Englishman, he was a
European, and complimenting the
young prince on the acuteness whicb
had penetrated his disguise.

For a month he was the honored
guest of Colonel Dolmage, and then he
set out for Teheran. That city was
reached on the 20th of January, 1864,
and he proceeded immediately to che
Turkish embassy, whence he had started
ten months before on his adventurous
journey. A suite of apartments was

TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA.

309

immediately set apart for him, the
British and French ambassadors vied
with each other in showing him kind-
ness, and the Shah accorded him a
gracious reception. He remained in
the Persian capital more than two
months, and then set out for Constanti-
nople, via Tabreez and Trebizond.

Vambery's adventurous journey was
the most remarkable of any in Central
Asia during the century, bringing the
outside world into touch with a part of
the globe that has remained for ages an
almost impenetrable mystery to othei
countries, and at the same time settlinj^
many doubtful questions-

PART IV.

Great Wars and Battles.

CHAPTER XXL
Downfall of Napoleon at Waterloo.

(5 i HE great battle which ended the
* I twenty-three years' war of the
first French Revolution, and
which quelled the extraordinary man
whose genius and ambition had so long
dominated the world, is justly regarded
as one of those remarkable events that
appear at long intervals and determine
the fate of nations.

Europe, long tossed by wars and con-
vulsions, at length breathed peacefully.
Suddenly Napoleon Bonaparte escaped
from Elba and the whole scene was
changed as if by the magic of an evil
spirit. The exertions which the allied
powers made at this crisis to grapple
promptly with the French Emperor
have truly been termed gigantic, and
never were Napoleon's genius and ac-
tivity more signally displayed than in
the celerity and skill by which he
brought forward all the military re-
sources of France, which the reverses
of the three preceding years, and the
pacific policy of the Bourbons during
the months of their first restoration, had
greatly diminished and disorganized.

He re-entered Paris on the 20th of
March, 181 5, ajftd by the end of May,
310

besides sending a force into La Vendee
to put down the armed risings of the
Royalists in that province, and besides
providing troops under Massena and
Suchet for the defense of the southern
frontiers of France, Napoleon had an
army assembled in the northeast for
active operations under his own com-
mand, which amounted to between 120
and 1 30,000 men, with a superb park of
artillery, and in the highest possible state
of equipment, discipline and efficiency.

The approach of the many Russians,
Austrians, Bavarians and other foes of
the French Emperor to the Rhine was
necessarily slow; but the two most active
of the allied powers had occupied
Belgium with their troops while Na-
poleon was organizing his forces. Mar-
shal Blucher was there with 116,000
Prussians, and the Duke of Wellington
was there also with about 106,000 troops,
either British or in British pay.

Napoleon determined to attack these
enemies in Belgium. The disparity of
numbers was indeed great, but delay
was sure to increase the number of his
enemies much faster than reinforce-
ments could join his own ranks He con-

ail

ai2

DOWiSTFALt OF NAPOtBON At WATERLOO.

sidered also that "the enemy's troops
were cantoned under the command of
two generals, and composed of nations
differing both in interest and in feel-
ings. His own army was under his own
sole command. It was composed ex-
clusively of French soldiers, mostly
veterans, well acquainted with their
officers and with each other, and full of
enthusiastic confidence in their com-
mander. If he could separate the Prus-
sians from the British, so as to attack
each in detail, he felt sanguine of suc-
cess, not only against thcvse, the most
resolute of his many adversaries, but
also against the other masses that were
slowly laboring up against his south-
eastern frontiers.

The French Concealed.

The triple chain of strong fortresses
which the French possessed on the Bel-
gian frontier formed a curtain, behind
which Napoleon was able to concen-
trate his army, and to conceal till the
very last moment the precise line of
attack which he intended to take. On
the other hand, Blucher and Welling-
ton were obliged to canton their troops
along a line of open country of con-
siderable length, so as to watch for the
outbreak of Napoleon from whichever
point of his chain of strongholds he
should please to make it.

Blucher, with his army, occupied the
banks of the Sambre and the Meuse,
from Liege on his left, to Charleroi on
his right ; and the Duke of Wellington
covered Brussels, his cantonments being
partly in front of that city, and be-
tween it and the French frontier, and
partly on its west; their extreme right
being at Courtray and Tournay, while
their left approached Charleroi and

communicated with the Prussian
right.

It was upon Charleroi that Napoleon
resolved to level his attack, in hopes of
severing the two allied armies from each
other, and then pursuing his favorite
tactic of assailing each separately with
a superior force on the battle-field,
though the aggregate of their numbers
considerably exceeded his own.

Over the Frontier.

On the 15th of June the French army
was suddenly in motion, and crossed
the frontier in three columns, which
were pointed upon Charleroi and its
vicinity. The French line of advance
upon Brussels, which city Napoleon re-
solved to occupy, thus lay right through
the centre of the line of the canton-
ments of the allies. The Prussian gen-
eral rapidly concentrated his forces,
calling them in from the left, and the
English general concentrated his, call-
ing them in from the right toward the
menaced centre of the combined posi-
tion.

On the morning of the i6th, Blucher
was in position at Ligny, to the north-
east of Charleroi, with 80,000 men.
Wellington's troops were concentrating
at Quatre Bras, which lies due north of
Charleroi, and is about nine miles from
Ligny. On the i6th, Napoleon in per-
son attacked Blucher, and, after a long
and obstinate battle, defeated him, and
compelled the Prussian army to retire
northward toward Wavre. On the same
day, Marshal Ney, with a large part of
the French army, attacked the English
troops at Quatre Bras, and a very severe
engagement took place, in which Ney
failed in defeating the British, but sue
ceeded in preventing their sending any

DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WA/ERLOO.

Slh

help to Blaclier, who was being beaten
by the Emperor at Ligny.

On the news of Blucher's defeat a^
Ligny reaching Wellington, he foresaw
that the Emperor's army would now be
directed upon him, and he accordingly
retreated in order to restore his com-
munications with his ally, which would
have been dislocated by the Prussians
falling back from Ligny to Wavre if
the English had remained in advance
at Quatre Bras. During the 17th,
therefore, Wellington retreated, being
pursued, but little molested by the main
French array, over about half the space
between Quatre Bras and Brussels.

Decides to G-ive Battle.

This brought him again parallel, on
a line running from west to east, with
Blucher, who was at Wavre. Having
ascertained that the Prussian army,
though beaten on the i6th, was not
broken, and having received a promise
from its general to march to his assist-
ance, Wellington determined to halt, j
and to give battle to the French Em-
peror in the position, which, from a
village in its neighborhood, has re-
ceived the ever-memorable name of the
field of Waterloo.

When, after a very hard-fought and
long-doubtful day. Napoleon had suc-
ceeded in driving back the Prussian
army from Ivigny, and had resolved on
marching himself to assail the English,
he sent, on the T/th, Marshal Grouchy
with 30,000 men to pursue the defeated
Prussians, and to prevent their march-
ing to aid the Duke of Wellington.
Great recriminations passed afterwards
between the marshal and the Emperor
as to how this duty was attempted to
be performed, and the reasons why

Grouchy failed on the i8th to arrest
the lateral movement of the Prussian
troops from Wavre toward Waterloo.

It may be sufficient to remark here
that Grouchy was not sent in pursuit
of Blucher till late on the 17th, and
that the force given to him was insuffi-
cient to make head against the whole
Prussian army ; for Blucher's men,
though they were beaten back, and suf-
fered severe loss at L/igny, were neither
routed nor disheartened ; and they were
joined at Wavre by a large division of
their comrades under General Bulow,
who had taken no part in the battle of
the 1 6th, and who were fresh for the
march to Waterloo against the French
on the 1 8 th.

But the failure of Grouchy was in
truth mainly owing to the indomitable
heroism of Blucher himself, who, though
severely injured in the battle at Ligny,
was as energetic and as active as ever
in bringing his men into action again,
and who had the resolution to expose a
part of his army, under Thielman, to
be overwhelmed by Grouchy at Wavre
on the 1 8th, while he urged the march
of the mass of his troops upon Water-
loo. " It is not at Wavre, but at Water-
loo," said the old field-marshal, "that
the campaign is to be decided ;" and
he risked a detachment, and won the
camoaign accordingly.

In Perfect Agreement.
Wellington and Blucher trusted each
other as cordially, and co-operated as
zealously, as formerly had been the
case with Marlborough and Eugene.
It was in full reliance on Blucher's
promise to join him that the dnke stood
his ground and fought at Waterloo :
and those who have ventured to impugn

314

DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO.

the duke's capacity as a general ought
to have had common sense enough to
perceive that to charge the duke with
having won the battle of Waterloo by
the belp of the Prussians is really to
say that he won it by the very means
on which he relied, and without the
expectation of which the battle would
\iot have been fought.

Wellington Criticized.

Napoleon himself found fault with
Wellington for not having retreated
beyond Waterloo. The short answer
may be, that the duke had reason to
expect that his army could singly resist
the French at Waterloo until the Prus-
sians came up, and that, on the Prus-
sians joining, there would be a suffi-
cient force, united under himself and
Blucher, for completely overwhelming
the enemy.

And while Napoleon thus censures
his great adversary, he involuntarily
bears the highest possible testimony
to the military character of the English,
and proves decisively of what para-
mount importance was the battle to
which he challenged his fearless oppo-
nent. Napoleon asks, " If the English
army had been beaten at Waterloo,
what would have been the use of those
numerous bodies of troops, of Prussians,
Austrians, Germans, and Spaniards,
which were advancing by forced march-
es to the Rhine, the Alps, and Py-
renees?"

The reader may gain a generally ac-
curate idea of the localities of the great
■Rattle by picturing a valley between
'wo and three miles long, of various
t)readths at different points, but gener-
ally not exceeding half a mile. On
each side of the valley there is a wind-

ing chain of low hills, running some-
what parallel with each other. The
declivity from each of these ranges of
hills to the intervening valley is gentle
but not uniform, the undulations of the
ground being frequent and considera-
ble. The English array was posted on
the northern, and the French army oc-
cupied the southern ridge.

The artillery of each side thundere(3
at the other from their respective heights
throughout the day, and the charges oi
horse and foot were made across the
valley that has been described. The
village of Mont St. Jean is situated a
little behind the centre of the northern
chain of hills, and the village of h^
Belle Alliance is close behind the centre
of the southern ridge. The high road
from Charleroi to Brussels runs through
both these villages, and bisects, there-
fore, both the English and the French
positions. The line of this road was
the line of Napoleon's intended advance
on Brussels.

Advantages of Position.

There are some other local particu-
lars connected with the situation of
each army which it is necessary to bear
in mind. The strength of the British
position did not consist merely in the
occupation of a ridge of high ground.
A village and ravine, called Merk
Braine, on the Duke of Wellington's
extreme right, secured him from nis
flank being turned on that side ; and on
his extreme left, two little hamlets,
called La Haye and Papillote, gave ^
similar though a slighter protection,
It was, however, less necessary to pro-
vide for this extremity of the position,
as it was on this (the eastern) side that
the Prussians were coming up.

DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. 315

Behind the whole British position I important to see what posts there were
was the great and extensive forest of 1 in front of the British line of hills of

THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON— COMMANDER OF THE ALLIED ARMIES.

Soignies. As no attempt was made by
the French to turn either of the Eng-
lish flanks, and the battle was a day of
straightforward fighting; it is chiefly

which advantage could be taken either
to repel or facilitate an attack ; and it
will be seen that there were two, and
that each was of very great importance.

316

DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO.

In front of the British right, that is
to say, on the northern slope of the val-
ley toward its western end, there stood
an old-fashioned Flemish farm-house
called Goumont or Hougoumont, with
out-buildings and a garden, and with a
copse of beech trees of about two acres
in extent round it. This was strongly
garrisoned by the allied troops ; and
while it was in their possession, it was
difficult for the enemy to press on and
force the British right wing.

Enemy Under Cover.

On the other hand, if the enemy could
occupy it, it would be difiicult for that
wing to keep its ground on the heights,
with a strong post held adversely in its
immediate front, being one that would
give much shelter to the enemy's marks-
men, and great facilities for the sudden
concentration of attacking columns.
Almost immediately in front of the
British centre, and not so far down the
slope as Hougoumont, there was another
farmhouse, of a smaller size, called La
Haye Sainte, which was also held by
the British troops, and the occupation
of which was found to be of very seri-
ous consequence.

With respect to the French position,
the principal feature to be noticed is
the village of Planchenoit, which lay a
little in the rear of their right (that is,
on the eastern side), and which proved
to be of great importance in aiding
them to check the advance of the Prus-
sians.

As has been already mentioned, the
Prussians, on the morning of the i8th,
were at Wavre, about twelve miles to
the east of the field of battle at Water-
loo. The junction of Bulow's division
had more than made up for the loss sus-

tained at Ligny ; and leaving Thielman,
with about 17,000 men, to hold his
ground as he best could against the
attack which Grouchy was about to
make on Wavre, Bulow and Bluchcr
moved with the rest of the Prussians
upon Waterloo. It was calculated that
they would be there by three o'clock ;
but the extremely difficult nature of the
ground which they had to traverse, ren-
dered worse by the torrents of rain that
had just fallen, delayed them long ou
their twelve miles' march.

The night of the 17th was wet and
stormy; and when the dawn of the
memorable 18th of June broke, the rain
was still descending heavily. The
French and British armies rose from
their dreary bivouacs and began to form,
each on the high ground which it oc-
cupied. Toward nine the weather grew
clearer, and each army was able to
watch the position and arrangements of
the other ou the opposite side of the
valley.

Line of Battle.
The Duke of Wellington drew up his
infantry in two lines, the second line
being composed principally of Dutch
and Belgian troops, whose fidelity was
doubtful, and of those regiments of
other nations which had suffered most
severely at Quartre Bras on the \6th.
This second line was j^osted or^ the
northern declivity of the hills, so as to
be sheltered from the French cannonade.
The cavalry v/as stationed at intervals
along the line in the rear, the largest
force of horse being collected on the
left of the centre, to the east of the
Charleroi road. On the opposite heights
the French army was drawn up in two
general lines, with the entire force of

DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO.

817

the Imperial Guards, cavalry as well as
infantry, in the rear of the centre, as a
reserve.

Hnglish military critics highly eulo-
gy* ' ed the admirable arrangement which
^Napoleon made of his forces of each
arm, so as to give him the most ample
means of sustaining, by an immediate
and sufficient support, any attack, from
whatever point he might direct it, and
of drawing promptly together a strong
force, to resist any attack that might be
made on himself in any part of the field.
When his troops were all arrayed, he
rode along the lines, receiving every-
where the most enthusiastic cheers from
his men, of whose entire devotion to
him his assurance was now doubly sure.
On the southern side of the valley the
duke's army was also arrayed, and ready
to meet the menaced attack.

Armies Face to Pace.

The two armies were now fairly in
presence of each other, and their mutual
observation was governed by the most
intense interest and the most scrutiniz-
ing anxiety. In a still greater degree
did these feelings actuate their com-
manders, while watching each other's
preparatory movements, and minutely
scanning the surface of the arena on
which tactical skill, habitual prowess,
physical strength, and moral courage
were to decide, not alone their own,
but, in all probability, the fate of
Europe.

Apart from national interests and
considerations, and viewed solely in
connection with the opposite characters
of the two illustrious chiefs, the ap-
proaching contest was contemplated
with anxious solicitude by the whole
military world. Need this create sur-

prise when we reflect that the struggle
was one for mastery between the far-
famed conqueror of Italy and the vic-
torious liberator of the Peninsul? ; be-
tween the triumphant vanquisher of
Eastern Europe, and the bold and suc-
cessful invader of the south of France i
Never was the issue of a single battle
looked forward to as involving conse-
quences of such vast importance — of
such universal influence.

The Struggle Begins.

It was approaching noon before the
action commenced. Napoleon, in his
memoirs, gives as the reason for this
delay, the miry state of the ground
through the heavy rain of the preced-
ing night and day, which rendered it
impossible for cavalry or artillery to
manceuver on it until a few hours of
dry weather had given it its natural
consistency. It has been supposed, also,
that he trusted to the effect which the
sight of the imposing array of his own
forces was likely to produce on the part
of the allied army.

The Belgian regiments had been
tampered with ; and Napoleon had well
founded hopes of seeing them quit the
Duke of Wellington in a body, and
range themselves under his own eagles.
The duke, however, who knew and did
not trust them, had guarded against
the risk of this by breaking up the
corps of Belgians, and distributing them
in separate regiments among troops on
whom he could rely.

At last, at about half past eleven
o'clock. Napoleon began the battle by
directing a powerful force from his left
wing under his brother, Prince Jerome
to attack Hougoumont. Column aftei
column of the French now descended

318

DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO.

from the west to the southern heights,
and assailed that post with fiery valor,
which was encountered with the most
determined bravery. The French won
the copse round the house, but a party
of the British Guards held the house
itself throughout the day.

Terrific Cannonade.

Amid shell and shot, and the blazing
fragments of part of the buildings, this
obstinate contest was continued. But
still the English held Hougoumont,
though the French occasionally moved
forward in such numbers as enabled
them to surround and mask this post
with part of their troops from their left
wing, while others pressed onward up
the slope, and assailed the British right.

The cannonade, which commenced
at first between the British right and
the French left, in consequence of the
attack on Hougoumont, soon became
general along both lines ; and about
one o'clock Napoleon directed a grand
attack to be made under Marshal Ney
upon the centre and left wing of the
allied army. For this purpose four
columns of infantry, amounting to about
18,000 men were collected, supported
by a strong division of cavalry under
the celebrated Kellerman, and seventy-
four guns were brought forward ready
to be posted on the ridge of a little
undulation of the ground in the inter-
val between the two main ranges of
heights, so as to bring their fire to bear
on the duke's line at a range of about
seven hundred yards.

By the combined assault of these
formidable forces, led on by Ney, " the
bravest of the brave," Napoleon hoped
to force the left centre of the British
position, to take La Haye Sainte,

and then, pressing forward, to occupy
also the farm of Mont St. Jean. He
then could cut the mass of Wellington's
troops ofi" from their line of retreat
upon Brussels, and from their own left,
and also completely sever them from
any Prussian troops that might be ap-
proaching.

The columns destined for this great
and decisive operation descended ma-
jestically from the French range of
hills, and gained the ridge of the inter-
vening eminence, on which the batteries
that supported them were now ranged.
As the columns descended again from
this eminence, the seventy-four guns
opened over their heads with terrible
effect upon the troops of the allies that
were stationed on the heights to the
left of Charleroi road. One of the
French columns kept to the east, and
attacked the extreme left of the allies ;
the other three continued to move rap-
idly forward upon the left centre of
the allied position.

Disgraceful Panic.

The front line of the allies here was
composed of Bylant's brigade of Dutch
and Belgians. As the French columns
moved up the southward slope of the
height on which the Dutch and Belgi-
ans stood, and the skirmishers in ad-
vance began to open their fire, Bylant's
entire brigade turned and fled in dis-
graceful and disorderly panic ; but
there were men more worthy of the
name behind.

The second line of the allies here
consisted of two brigades of the Eng-
lish infantry, which had suffered se-
verely at Quatre Bras. But they were
under Picton, and not even Ney himself
surpassed in resolute bravery that stern

DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO.

319

and fiery spirit. Picton brought his two 1 against the three victorious French
brigades forward, side by side, in a \ columns, upward of four times that

HEROIC CHARGE OP THE ENGLISH CAVALRY AT WATERLOO.

thin two-deep line. Thus joined to-
gether, they were not 3000 strong.
With these Picton had to make head

strength, and who, encouraged by th(^
easy rout of the Dutch and Belgians,
now came confidently over the ridc-c.

820

DOWNFALI, OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO.

The Britisli infantry stood firm ; and
as the French halted and began to
deploy into line, Picton seized the
critical moment : a close and deadly
volley was thrown in upon them, and
then with a fierce hurrah the British
dashed in with the bayonet. The
French reeled back in confusion ; and
as they staggard down the hill, a brig-
ade of the English cavalry rode in on
them, cutting them down by whole
battalions, and taking ?ooo prisoners.
The British cavalry gallopei forward
and sabred the artillery-m ^/i of Ney's
seventy-four advanced guns ■; and then
cutting the traces and the throats of
the horses, rendered these guns totally
useless to the French throughout the
remainder of the day. In the excite-
ment of success, the English cavalry
continued to press on, but were charged
in their turn, and driven back with
severe loss by Milhaud's cuirassiers.

Failure of Great Attack.

This great attack (in repelling which
the brave Picton had fallen) had now
completely failed ; and, at the same
time, a powerful body of French cuir-
assiers, who were advancing along the
right of the Charleroi road, had been
fairly beaten after a close hand-to-hand
fight by the heavy cavalry of the Eng-
lish household brigade. Hougoumont
was still being assailed, and was suc-
cessfully resisting.

Troops were now beginning to ap-
pear at the edge of the horizon on
Napoleon's right, which he too well
knew to be Prussian, though he en-
deavored to persuade his followers that
they were Grouchy's men coming to
aid them. It was now about half-past
three o'clock ; and though Wellington's

army had suffered severely by the unre-
mitting cannonade and in the late des-
perate encounter, no part of the British
position had been forced. Napoleon
next determined to try what effect he
could produce on the British centre and
right by charges of his splendid cavalry,
brought on in such force that the duke's
cavalry could not check them.

Stood Like a Wall.

Fresh troops were at the same time
sent to assail La Haye Sainte and
Hougoumont, the possession of these
posts being the emperor's unceasing
object. Squadron after squadron of
the French cuirassiers accordingly as-
cended the slopes on the duke's right,
and rode forward with dauntless cour-
age against the batteries of the Britisli
artillery in that part of the field. The
artillerymen were driven from their
guns, and the cuirassiers cheered loudly
at their supposed triumph. But the
duke had formed his infantry in squares,
and the cuirassiers charged in vain
against the impenetrable hedges of
bayonets, while the fire from the inner
ranks of the squares told with terrible
effect on their squadrons.

Time after time they rode forward
with invariably the same result; and as
they receded from each attack, the
British artillerymen rushed forward
from the centres of the squares, where
they had taken refuge, and plied their
guns on the retiring horsemen. Nearly
the whole of Napoleon's magnificent
body of heavy cavalry was destroyed
in these fruitless attempts upon the
British right. But in another part of
the field fortune favored him for a time.
Donzelot's infantry took La Haye
Sainte between six and seven o'clock,

DOWNFAI.L OF NAPOIvEON Ai WATKRI.OO.

i21

and the means were now given for or-
ganizing another formidable attack on
the centre of the allies.

There was notime to be lost : Blucher
and Bulow were beginning to press
upon the French right ; as early as five
o'clock, Napoleon had been obliged to
detach Lobau's infantry and Domont's
horse to check these new enemies. This
was done for a time ; but, as large num-
bers of the Prussians came on the field,
they turned Lobau's left, and sent a
strong force to seize the village of
Planchenoit, which, it will be remem-
bered, lay in the rear of the French
right. Napoleon was now obliged to
send his Young Guard to occupy that
village, which was accordingly held by
them with great gallantry against the
reiterated assaults of the Prussian left
under Bulow.

Heroic Defense.

But the force remaining under Napo-
leon was now numerically inferior to
that under the Duke of Wellington,
which he had been assailing throughout
the day, without gaining any other ad-
vantage than the capture of La Haye
Sainte. It is true that, owing to the
gross misconduct of the greater part of
the Dutch and Belgian troops, the duke
was obliged to rely exclusively on his
Bnglish and German soldiers, and the
ranks of these had been fearfully
thinned ; but the survivors stood their
ground heroically, and still opposed a
resolute front to every forward move-
ment of their ene'mies.

Napoleon had then the means of effect-
ing a retreat. His Old Guard had yet
taken no part in the action. Under
cover of it, he might have withdrawn
his shattered forces and retired upon

21

the French frontier. But this would
only have given the English and Prus-
sians the opportunity of completing
their junction ; and he knew that other
armies were fast coming up to aid them
in a march upon Paris, if he should suc-
ceed in avoiding an encounter with
them, and retreating upon the capital.
A victory at Waterloo was his only
alternative from utter ruin, and he de-
termined to employ his Guard in one
bold stroke more to make that victory
his own.

Between seven and eight o'clock the
infantry of the Old Guard was formed
into two columns, on the declivity near
La Belle Alliance. Ney was placed at
their head. Napoleon himself rode for-
ward to a spot by which his veterans
were to pass ; and as they approached he
raised his arm, and pointed to the posi-
tion of the allies, as if to tell them, that
their path lay there. They answered
with loud cries of " Vive I'Emperor ! "
and descended the hill from their own
side into that "valley of the shadow of
death," while their batteries thundered
with redoubled vigor over their heads
upon the British line.

Charge on British Centre.
The line of march of the columns of
the Guard was directed between Hou-
goumont and La Haye Sainte, against
the British right centre; and at the
same time, Donzelot and the French,
who had possession of La Haye Sainte,
commenced a fierce attack upon the
British centre, a little more to its left.
This part of the battle has drawn less
attention than the celebrated attack of
the Old Guard ; but it formed the most
perilous crisis for the allied army ; and
if the Young Guard had been there to

322

DOWNFALI. OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO.

support Donzelot, instead of being en-
gaged with the Prussians at Planche-
noit, the consequences to the allies in
that part of the field must have been
most serious.

The French tirailleurs, who were
posted in clouds in La Haye Sainte,
and the sheltered spots near it, com-
pletely disabled the artillerymen of the
English batteries near them ; and, tak-
ing advantage of the crippled state of
the English guns, the French brought
some field-pieces up to La Haye Sainte,
and commenced firing grape from them
on the infantry of the allies, at a dis-
tance of not more than a hundred paces.
The allied infantry here consisted of
some German brigades, who were formed
in squares, as it was believed that Don-
zelot had cavalry ready behind La Haye
Sainte to charge them with, if they left
that order of formation. In this state
the Germans remained for some time
with heroic fortitude, though the grape-
shot was tearing gaps in their ranks,
and the side of one square was literally
blown away by one tremendous volley
which the French gunners poured into it.

Duke at the Front.
The Prince of Orange in vain endea-
vored to lead some Nassau troops to their
aid. The Nassauers would not or could
not face the French ; and some battal-
ions of Brunswickers, whom the Duke
of Wellington had ordered up as a re-
enforcement, at first fell back, until the
Duke in person rallied them and led
them on. The Duke then galloped off
to the right to head his men who were
exposed to the attack of the Imperial
Guard. He had saved one part of his
centre from being routed; but the
French had gained ground here, and

the pressure on the allied line was severe,
until it was relieved by the decisive suc-
cess which the British in the right cen-
tre achieved over the columns of the
Guard.

The British troops on the crest of
that part of the position, which the first
column of Napoleon's Guards assailed,
were Maitland's brigade of British
Guards, having Adam's brigade on
their right. Maitland's men were ly-
ing down, in order to avoid, as far as
possible, the destructive effect of the
French artillery, which kept up an un-
remitting fire from the opposite heights,
until the first column of the Imperial
Guard had advanced so far up the slope
toward the British position that any
further firing of the French artillery-
men would endanger their own com-
rades.

Ney's Superb Bravery.

Meanwhile, the British guns were not
idle ; but shot and shell plowed fast
through the ranks of the stately array
of veterans that still moved imposingly
on. Several of the French superior
oflScers were at its head. Ney's horse
was shot under him, but he still led the
way on foot, sword in hand. The front
of the massy column now was on the
ridge of the hill. To their surprise,
they saw no troops before them. All
they could discern through the smoke
was a small band of mounted officers.
One of them was the duke himself.
The French advanced to about fifty
yards from where the British Guards
were lying down, when the voice of
one of the band of British officers was
heard calling, as if to the ground before
him, " Up, Guards, and at them 1 "

It was the Duke who gave the order ;

DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO.

323

and at the words, as if by magic, up
started before them, a line of British
Guards four deep, and in the most com-
pact and perfect order. They poured
an instantaneous volley upon the head
of the French column, by which no less
than three hundred of those chosen
* veterans are said to have fallen. The
French officers rushed forward, and,
conspicuous in front of their men, at-
tempted to deploy them into a more
extended line, so as to enable them to
reply with effect to the British fire.

The French Routed.

But Maitland's brigade kept shower-
ing in volley after volley with deadly
rapidity. The decimated column grew
disordered in its vain efforts to expand
itself into a more efficient formation.
The right word was given at the right
moment to the British for the bayonet
charge, and the brigade sprung forward
with a loud cheer against their dis-
mayed antagonists. In an instant the
compact mass of the French spread out
into a rabble, and they fled back down
the hill pursued by Maitland's men,
who, however, returned to their position
in time to take part in the repulse of the
second column of the Imperial Guard.

This column also advanced with great
spirit and firmness under the cannonade
which was opened upon it, and, passing
by the eastern wall of Hougoumont,
diverged slightly to the right as it
moved up the slope toward the British
position, so as to approach the same
spot where the first column had sur-
mounted the height and been defeated.
This enabled the British regiments of
Adam's brigade to form a line parallel
to the left flank of the French column,
so that while the front of this column

of French Guards had to encounter the
cannonade of the British batteries, and
the musketry of Maitland's Guards, its
left flank was assailed with a destructive
fire by a four-deep body of British in-
fantry, extending all along it.

Veterans Hurled Back.

In such a position, all the bravery
and skill of the French veterans were
in vain. The second column, like its
predecessor, broke and fled, taking at
first a lateral direction along the front
of the British line toward the river of
I/a Haye Sainte, and so becoming
blended with the divisions of French
infantry, which, under Donzelot, had
been pressing the allies so severely in
that quarter. The sight of the Old
Guard broken and in fiight checked
the ardor which Donzelot's troops had
hitherto displayed. They, too, began
to waver. Adam's victorious brigade
was pressing after the flying Guard, and
now cleared away the assailants of the
allied centre.

But the battle was not yet won. Na-
poleon had still some battalions in re-
serve near lya Belle Alliance. He was
rapidly rallying the remains of the first
column of his Guards, and he had col-
lected into one body the remnants of
the various corps of cavalry, which had
suffered so severely in the earlier part
of the day. The duke instantly formed
the bold resolution of now himself be-
coming the assailant, and leading his
successful though enfeebled army for-
ward, while the disheartening effect of
the repulse of the Imperial Guard on
the French army was still strong, and
before Napoleon and Ney could rally
the beaten veterans themselves for
another and fiercer charge.

o

o

o
w

w

O
«

o

324

DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO.

325

As the close approach of the Prus-
sians now completely protected the
duke's left, he had drawn some reserves
of horse from that quarter, and had a
brigade of Hussars under Vivian fresh
and ready at hand. Without a moment's
hesitation, he launched these against
the cavalry near La Belle Alliance.
The charge was as successful as it was
daring ; and as there was now no hostile
cavalry to check the British infantry in
a forward movement, the duke gave the
long-wished-for command for a general
advance of the army along the whole
line upon the foe.

"Nine Deadly Hours."

It was now past eight o'clock, and
for nine deadly hours had the British
and German regiments stood unflinch-
ing under the fire of artillery, the
charge of cavalry, and every variety of
assault that the compact columns or
the scattered skermishers of the enemy's
infantry could inflict. As they joyously
sprang forward against the discomfited
masses of the French, the setting sun
broke through the clouds which had
obscured the sky during the greater
part of the day, and glittered on the
bayonets of the allies while they in
turn poured down into the valley and
toward the heights that were held by
the foe.

Almost the whole of the French host
was now in irretrievable confusion.
The Prussian army was coming more
and more rapidly forward on their right,
and the Young Guard, which had held
Planchenoit so bravely, was at last
compelled to give way. Some regi-
ments of the Old Guard in vain endea-
vored to form, in squares. They were
swept away to the rear; and then Na-

poleon himself fled from the last of his
many fields, to become in a few weeks
a captive and an exile. The battle was
lost by France past all recovery. The
victorious armies of England and Prus-
sia, meeting on the scene of their
triumph, continued to press forward
and overwhelm every attempt that was
made to stem the tide of ruin.

The British army, exhausted by its
toils and suffering during that dreadful
day, did not urge the pursuit beyond
the heights which the enemy had oc-
cupied. But the Prussians drove the
fugitives before them throughout the
night. And of the magnificent host
which had that morning cheered theii
emperor in confident expectation of
victory, very few were ever assembled
again in arms. Their loss, both in the
field and in the pursuit, was immense ;
and the greater number of those who
escaped, dispersed as soon as they crossed
the frontier.

The army under the Duke of Wel-
lington lost heavily in killed and
wounded on this terrible day of battle.
The loss of the Prussian army was even
greater. At a fearful price was the de-
liverance of Europe purchased.

Battles Compared.

Hon. Theodore Roosevelt, Colonel of
the Rough Riders in our war with
Spain, made some interesting compari-
sons between the battles of Gettysburg
and Waterloo, as follows :

"As the battles of Waterloo and
Gettysburg, from their size, bloodiness,
and decisive importance, have so often
provoked comparison, it may be of
interest to readers to compare the force
and loss of the combatants in each. I
take the figures for Waterloo from the

326

DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO.

official reports as given by Dorsey
Gardner in his ' Quatre Bras, Ligny
and Waterloo,' and the figures for Get-
tysburg from • Battles and L^eaders of
the Civil War,' and from Captain Wil-
liam F. Fox's 'Regimental lyosses in
the American Civil War.'

Infantry and Artillery.

" Unlike Waterloo Gettysburg was al-
nost purely a fight of infantry and artil-
lery ; the cavalry, which did good work
luring the campaign, played no part in
ihe battle itself, the bulk of the horse of
ihe two contending armies being at the
iime engaged in a subsidiary but en-
tirely distinct fight of their own. The
troops thus engaged should not be in-
cluded in the actual fighting forces
employed at Gettysburg itself, any more
than Grouchy' s French and the Prus-
sians agaiast whom they were pitted at
Wavre can be included in the armies
actually engaged at Waterloo. The
exclusion will be made in both cases
and the comparison thereby rendered
more easy.

" Even making these exclusions it is
impossible wholly to reconcile the vari-
ous authorities, but the following fig-
ures must be nearly accurate. At Get-
tysburg there were present in action
80,000 to 85,000 Union troops, and
of the Confederate some 65,000. At
Waterloo there were 120,000 soldiers of
the Allies under Wellington and Blu-
cher, and some 72,000 French under
Napoleon ; or, there were about 150,000
combatants at Gettysburg and about
190,000 at Waterloo.

"In each case the weaker army made
the attack and was defeated. Lee did
not have to face such heavy odds as
N-ipoleon, but whereas Napoleon's de-

feat was one in which he lost all his
guns and saw his soldiers become a dis-
organized rabble, Lee drew off his
army in good order, his cannon uncap-
tured, and the morale of his formidable
soldiers unshaken.

"The defeated Confederates lost in
killed and wounded 15,530, and in
captures 7,467, some of whom were
likewise wounded, or 23,000 in all ; the
defeated French lost from 25,000 to
30,000 — probably nearer the latter num-
ber. The Confederates thus lost in
killed and wounded at least 25 per cent,
of their force, and yet they preserved
their artillery and their organization,
while the French suffered an even
heavier proportional loss and were
turned into a fleeing mob.

Heavy Federal Losses.

"At Gettysburg the Northerns lost
17,555 killed and wounded and 5435
missing ; in other words, they suffered
an actually greater loss than the much
larger army of Wellington and Blucher;
relatively it was half as great again,
being something like 22 per cent, in
killed and wounded alone. This gives
some idea of the comparative obstinacy
of the fighting.

" But in each case the brunt of the
battle fell unequally on different or-
ganizations. At Waterloo the English
did the heaviest fighting and suff'ered
the heaviest loss, and though at Gettys-
burg no troops behaved badly, as did
the Dutch-Belgians, yet one or two of
the regiments composed of foreigners
certainly failed to distinguish them-
selves. Meade had seven infantry corps,
one of which was largely held in re-
serve. The six that did the actual fight-
ing may be grouped in pairs. The se-

DOWNFALI. OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO.

327

cond and third numbered nominally
23,610 (probably there were in reality
several hundred less than this), and lost
in killed and wounded 7586, or 32 per
cent., and 974 missing, so that these
two corps, whose aggregate force was
smaller than that of Wellington's Bri-
tish regiments at Waterloo, neverthe-
less suffered a considerably heavier
loss, and therefore must have done
bloodier and, on the whole, more obsti-
nate fighting.

"The First and Eleventh Corps, who
were very roughly handled the first
day, make a much worse showing in
the missing column, but their death
rolls are evidence of how bravely they
fought. They had in all 18,600 men,
of whom 6092, or 32 per cent, were
killed and wounded and 3733 missing.
The Fifth and Twelfth Corps, in the
aggregate of 20, 147 men, lost 2990, or
15 per cent, killed and wounded and
278 missing.

" Thus of the six Union corps which
did the fighting at Gettysburg four suf-
fered a relatively much heavier loss in
killed and wounded than Wellington's
British at Waterloo, and the other two
SI relatively much heavier loss than
Blucher's Prussians.

" In making any comparison between
the two battles it must, of course, be re-
membered that one occupied but a sin-
gle day and the other very nearly three ;
and it is hard to compare the severity
of the strain of a long and very bloody,
with that caused by a short, and only
less bloodless battle. Gettysburg con-
sisted of a series of more or less com-
paratively isolated conflicts ; but owing
to the loose way in which the armies
marched into action many of the troops
that did the heaviest of the fightinsf
were engaged for but a portion of the
time. The Second and Third Corps
were probably not heavily engaged for
a very much longer period than the
British regiments at Waterloo.

*'Both were soldiers' rather than
generals' battles. Both were waged
with extraordinary courage and obsti-
nacy and at a fearful cost of life. Wa-
terloo was settled by a single desperate
and exhausting struggle ; Gettysburg
took longer, was less decisive, and was
relatively much more bloody. Accord-
ing to Wellington the chief feature of
Waterloo was the * hard pounding,'
and at Gettysburg the pounding — or,
as Grant called it, the ' hammering '
— was even harder."

CHAPTER XXII.

Decisive Battles of Austerlitz and Jena.

N the 2 1st of November, 1805, a
striking and warlike cavalcade
was traversing at a slow pace a
wide and elevated plateau in
Moravia. In front, on a grey horse, rode
a short, sallow-faced man with dark
hair and a quick, eager glance, whose
notice nothing seemed to escape. His
dress was covered by a grey overcoat,
which met a pair of long riding-boots,
and on his head was a low, weather-
stained cocked hat.

He was followed by a crowd of officers,
evidently of high rank, for their uni-
forms, saddle-cloths, and plumed hats
were heavily laced, and they had the
bold, dignified bearing of leaders of
men. In front and in the flanks of the
party were scattered watchful vedettes,
and behind followed a strong squadron
of picked cavalry in dark green dol-
mans with furred pelisses slung over
their shoulders, and huge fur caps sur-
mounted by tall red plumes.

The leading horseman rode in silence
over the plateau, first to one point then
to another, examining with anxious
care every feature of the ground. He
marked carefully the little village from
which the expanse took its name, and
the steep declivity which sloped to a
muddy stream below. No one addressed
him, for he was a man whose train of
thought was not to be lightly inter-
rupted.

Suddenly, at length, he drew rein,

and, turning to the body of ofiicers,

said : "Gentlemen, examine this ground

carefully. It will be a field of battle,

328

upon which you will all have a part to
act." The speaker was Napoleon.
His hearers were his generals and staff.
He had been reconnoitring, surrounded
and guarded by his devoted Chasseurs
of the Guard, the plateau of Pratzen,
the main part of the arena where was
to be waged in a few days the mighty
conflict of Austerlitz.

Napoleon's headquarters were then
at Brunn. The French host, then for
the first time called the ' ' Grand Army, ' '
had, at the command of its great chief,
in the beginning of September broken
up the camps long occupied on the
coasts of France in preparation for a
contemplated invasion of England, and
had directed its march to the Rhine.
It was formed in seven corps under
Bernadotte, Marmont, Davoust, Soult,
Lannes, Ney, and Augereau, with its
cavalry under Prince Murat, and the
Imperial Guard as a reserve.

The Rhine was crossed at different
points, and the tide of invasion swept
upon the valley of the Danube. From
the beginning the movements had been
made with a swiftness unprecedented
in war. Guns and cavalry had been
moved in ceaseless and unhalting stream
along every road. Infantry had pressed
forward by forced marches, and had
been aided in its onward way by wheeled
transports at every available oppor-
tunity.

The Emperor had resolved to strike
a blow by land against his foes which
should counterbalance the several checks
which the indomitable navy of Englan«3

BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA.

32&

had inflicted on his fleets at sea. Austria
and Russia were in arms against France,
and he was straining every nerve to en-
counter and shatter their separate forces
before they would unite in overwhelm-
ing power. The campaign had opened
for him with a series of brilliant suc-
cesses. The veterans of the revolution-
ary wars, of Italy and of Egypt, di-
rected by his mighty genius, had proved
themselves irresistible.

The Austrians had been the first to
meet the shock, and had been defeated
at every point— Gunzberg, Haslach,
Albeck, Elchingen, Memmingen— and
the first phase of the struggle had closed
with the capitulation at Ulm of Gen-
eral Mack with 30,000 men.

Brilliant Successes.

But there had been no stay in the
rush of the victorious French. The
first defeats of the Austrian army had
been rapidly followed up. The corps
which had escaped from the disaster at
Ulm were pursued and, one after an-
other, annihilated. The Tyrol was
overrun, and its strong positions occu-
pied by Marshal Ney. From Italy
came the news of Massena's successes
against the celebrated Archduke
Charles, and at Dirnstein Marshal Mor-
tier had defeated the first Russian army
under Kutusow.

The Imperial headquarters had been
established at Schonbrunn, the home
of the Emperor of Austria. Vienna
had been occupied and the bridge
across the Danube secured by Lannes
and Murat. Kutusow, after his defeat
at Dirnstein, had been driven back
through Hollabrunn on Brunn by the
same marshals at the head of the French
advanced guard, and had now joined

the second Russian army, with which
was its Emperor Alexander in person,
and an Austrian force under Prince
lyichtenstein, accompanied by the Em-
peror of Austria.

The main body of the " Grand Ar-
my" had, under Napoleon, followed
its advanced guard into the heart of
Moravia. Its headquarters and imme-
diate base were now at Brunn, but its
position was sufficiently critical, at the
extremity of a long line of operations,
numbering less than 70,000 disposable
men, while the Russo-Austrian army
in front amounted to 92,000. So rapid
had been the movements since the camp
at Boulogne was left, that the common
saying passed in the ranks that " Our
Emperor does not make use of our arms
in this war so much as of our legs ;"
and the grave result of this constant
swiftness had been that many soldiers
had fallen to the rear from indisposition
or fatigue, and even the nominal
strength of corps was thus for the time
seriously diminished. It is recorded
that in the Chasseurs a-Cheval of the
Guard alone there was a deficiency of
more than four hundred men from this
cause. But all these laggards were
doing their best to rejoin the army be-
fore the great battle took place which
all knew to be inevitable, and in which
all were eager to bear their part.

The Army Resting.
Napoleon had himself arrived at
Brunn on the 20th of November, and
during the following days till the 27th
he allowed his army a measure of re-
pose to enable it to recover its strength
after its long toils— to repair its arms,
its boots and worn material, and to
rally every man under its eagles. His

330

BATTLES OF AUSTBRI.ITZ AND JENA.

advanced guard had been pushed for-
ward under Murat towards Wischau on
the Olmutz road, Soult's corps on his
right had pressed Kutusow's retreat to-
wards Austerlitz, and the remainder
were disposed in various positions to
watch Hungary and Bohemia and to
maintain his hold upon Vienna.

Gruard Driven Back.

On the 27th the French advanced
guard was attacked and driven back by
the Russians at Wischau, and certain
information arrived that this had been
done by a portion of the main Russian
army und^r the Emperor Alexander.
It had been thought possible by Napo-
leon that peaceful negotiations might
be opened, but this confident advance
of his enemies seemed to show that they
had by no means lost heart, and when
on the 28th he had a personal interview
with Prince Dolgorouki, the favorite
of Alexander, he found the Russian
proposals so insulting and presumptu-
ous that he broke off abruptly any fur-
ther communication.

We have seen Napoleon reconnoiter-
ing on the 21st of November, and we
have marked the marvellous coup d^ csil
and prescience with which he foresaw
the exact spot where the great battle,
then looming before him, must take
place. Every succeeding day saw the
reconnoissance renewed, and never was
a battle-field more thoroughly exam-
ined, never was forecast by a general of
the actual turn of events to be expected
more completely justified by fulfilment.

It had become certain that the united
army of two mighty empires was close
at hand. From the tone of Dolgorouki's
communication it was evident that both
the Russian and Austrian monarchs had

resolved to trust their fortunes to the
ordeal of battle, and that they, with
their generals and soldiery, were eager
to retrieve their previous misfortunes,
and full of confidence that they would
do so. That confidence had been in-
creased by the repulse of the French
advanced guard at Wischau ; and they
now longed to complete their work by
pouring their superior numbers on the
comparatively weak French main body.
With this knowledge before him,
Napoleon proceeded to carry out the
plan of action which he had carefully
matured. To the astonishment of many
veterans in his army, a general retreat
of his advanced troops was ordered.
Murat fell back from Posoritz and Soult
from near Austerlitz. But this retro-
grade movement was short, and they
were halted on the ground chosen by
Napoleon for his battle-line. The out-
lying corps of Bernadotte and Davoust
was summoned to complete his array.
Munitions, food, ambulances were hur-
ried to their appointed posts, and it was
announced that the battle would be
fought on the ist or 2d of December.

Daring Strategy.
The line of a muddy stream, called
the Goldbach, marked the front of the
French army. This stream takes its
source across the Olmutz road, and
flowing through a dell, of which the
sides are steep, discharges itself into
the Menitz Lake. At the top of its
high left bank stretches the wide Prat-
zen plateau, and it appeared to Napo-
leon's staff that he had made an error
in relinquishing such a vantage ground
to his enemy ; but he told them that
he had done so of set purpose, saying,
"If I remained master of this fine

BA'TtLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA.

331

plateau, I could here check the Rus-
sians, but then I should only have an
ordinary victory ; whereas by giving it
to them and refusing my right, if they
dare to descend from these heights in
order to outflank me, I secure that they
shall be lost beyond redemption,"

I^et us examine the positions occupied
by the French and the Austro-Russian
armies at the close of November, and
we shall the better understand the
general strategy of the two combatant
forces and the tactics which each made
use of when they came into collision.
The Emperor Napoleon rested his left,
under Ivannes and Murat, on a rugged
eminence, which those of his soldiers
who had served in Egypt called the
" Santon," because its crest was crowned
by a little chapel, of which the roof
had a fancied resemblance to a minaret.

An Impregnable Fortress.

This eminence he had strengthened
with field works, armed and provisioned
like a fortress. He had, by repeated
visits, satisfied himself that his orders
were properly carried out, and he had
committed its defence to special defend-
ers under the command of General
Claparede, impressing upon them that
they must be prepared to fire their last
cartridge at their post and, if necessary,
there to die to the last man.

His centre was on the right bank of
the Goldbach. There were the corps
of Soultand Bernadotte, the Grenadiers
of Duroc and Oudinot, and the Imperial
Guard with forty guns. Their double
lines were concealed by the windings
of the stream, by scattered clumps of
wood, and by the features of the ground.

His right was entrusted to Davoust's
corps, summoned in haste to the battle-

field, and of which only a division of
infantry and one of Dragoons had been
able to come into line. They were
posted at Menitz, and had the defiles
passing the Menitz I^ake and the two
other lakes of Telnitz and Satschau.
Napoleon's line of battle was thus an
oblique one, with its right thrown back.
It had the appearance of being only
defensive, if not actually timid, its cen-
tre not more than sufiiciently occupied,
its right extremely weak, and only its
left formidable and guaranteed against
any but the most powerful attack.

Setting a Trap.

But the great strategist had weighed
well his methods. He trusted that the
foe would be tempted to commit them-
selves to an attack on his right, essay-
ing to cut his communications and line
of retreat on Vienna. If they could be
led into this trap, the difficulty of
movement in the ground cut up by
lake, stream, and marsh would give to
Davoust the power to hold them in
check until circumstances allowed of
aid being given to him. Meantime,
with his left impregnable and his centre
ready to deal a crushing blow, he ex-
pected to be able to operate against
the Russo- Austrian flank and rear with
all the advantage due to unlooked-for
strength.

The right of the Russo-Austrians,
commanded by the Princes Bagration
and Ivichtenstein, rested on a wooded
hill near Posoritz across the Olmutz
road. Their centre, under Kollowrath,
occupied the village of Pratzen and the
large surrounding plateau ; while their
left, under Doctorof and Kienmyer,
stretched towards the Satchau Lake
and the adjoining marshes.

832

BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA.

The village of Austerlitz was some
distance in the rear of the Russo-Aus-
trian position, and had no immediate
connection with the movements of the
troops employed on either side, but the
Emperors of Russia and Austria slept
in it on the night before the battle, and
Napoleon afterwards accentuated the
greatness of his victory by naming it
after the place from which he had
chased them.

An Unequal Contest.

The two great armies now in presence
of each other were markedly unequal
in strength — 92,000 men were opposed
to 70,000, and the advantage of 22,000
was to the allies. But this inequality
was to a great extent compensated by
the tactical dispositions of the leader
of the weaker force. Of the two an-
tagonist lines, one was wholly exposed
to view, the other to a great extent
concealed — first advantage to the latter.
They formed, as it were, two parallel
arcs of a circle, but that of the French
was the more compact and uninter-
rupted— second advantage ; and this
last was soon to be increased by the
imprudent Russian manoeuvres. The
two armies, barely at a distance of two
cannon-shot from each other, had by
mutual tacit consent formed their biv-
ouacs, piled arms, fed and reposed
peaceably around their fires, the one
covered by a thick cloud of Cossacks,
the other by a sparse line of vedettes.

Napoleon quitted Brunn early in the
morning of the ist of December, and
employed the whole of that day in ex-
amining the positions which the differ-
ent portions of his army occupied. His
headquarters were established in the
rear of the centre of his line at a hio-h

point, from which could be seen the
bivouacs of both French and allies, as
well as the ground on which the mor-
row's issue would be fought out. The
cold was intense, but there was no snow.
The only shelter that could be found
for the ruler of France was a dilapidated
hut, in which were placed the Empe-
ror's table and maps.

The Grenadiers had made up a huge
fire hard by, and his travelling carriage
was drawn up, in which he could take
such sleep as his anxieties would per-
mit. The divisions of Duroc and Oud-
inot bivouacked between him and the
enemy, while the Guard lay round him
and towards the rear.

A Huge Blunder.

In the late afternoon of the same day
Napoleon was watching the allied posi-
tion through his telescope. On the
Pratzen plateau could be seen a general
flank movement of Russian columns, in
the rear of their first line, from their
centre to their left and towards the
front of the French position at Telnitz.
It was evidently supposed by the enemy
that the French intended to act only on
the defensive, that nothing was to be
feared from them in front, and that the
allies had only to throw their masses
on their right, cut off their retreat upon
Vienna, and thus inflict upon them a
certain and disastrous defeat. r-

It was forgotten by the Russo-Aus-
trians that in thus moving their princi-
pal forces to the left, the centre of their
position was weakened, and on the
right their own line of operations and
retreat was left entirely unprotected.
When Napoleon detected what was be-
ing done, trembling with satisfaction
and clapping his hands, he said : "What

BATTLES OF AUSTERIvITZ AND JENA.

333

a manoeuvre to be ashamed of ! They
are running into the trap ! They are
giving themselves up ! Before to-mor-
row evening that army will be in my
hands!" In order still more to add to
the confidence of his enemy and to en-
courage them in the prosecution of their
mistaken plan, he ordered Murat to
sally forth from his own position with
some cavalry, to manoeuvre as if show-
ing uneasiness and hesitation, and then
to retire with an air of alarm.

Promises Victory.

This order given, he returned im-
mediately to his bivouac, dictated and
issued his famous proclamation in
which he assured his army that the
Austro-Russians were exposing their
flank and were offering certain glory to
the soldiers of France as a reward for
their valor in the coming struggle :
he said that he himself would direct
their battalions, but that he would not
expose himself to danger unless success
was doubtful, and he promised that
after their victor}^ they should have
comfortable cantonments and peace.

The evening of the ist of December
closed in. The allied movement to-
wards their left was still continuing,
and Napoleon, after renewing his or-
ders, again visiting his parks and ambu-
lances and satisfying himself by his
own observation that all was in order,
threw himself on a bundle of straw and
slept. About eleven o'clock he was
awakened and told that a sharp attack
had been made on one of the villages
occupied by his right, but that it had
been repulsed. This further confirmed
his forecast of the allied movements,
but, wishing to make a last reconnais-
sance of his enemy's position, he again

mounted, and, followed by Junot, Duroc,
Berthier, and some others of his stajQf,
he ventured between the two armies.

As he closely skirted the enemy's line
of outposts, in spite of several warnings
that he was incurring great risk, he, in
the darkness, rode into a picket of
Cossacks. These sprang to arms and
attacked him so suddenly that he would
certainly have been killed or taken pris-
oner if it had not been for the devoted
courage of his escort, which engaged
the Cossacks while he turned his horse
and galloped back to the French lines.
His escape was so narrow and precipi-
tate that he had to pass without choos-
ing his way the marshy Goldbach
stream.

"A Cry was Raised."

His own horse and those of several of
his attendants — amongst others Ywan,
his surgeon, who never left his person
— were for a time floundering helpless
in the deep mud, and the Emperor was
obliged to make his way on foot to his
headquarters past the fires round which
his soldiers were lying. In the obscur-
ity he stumbled over a fallen tree-trunk;
and it occurred to a grenadier who saw
him, to twist and use some straw as a
torch, holding it over his head to light
the path of his sovereign.

In the middle of the anxious night,
full of disquietude and anticipation, the
eve of the anniversary of the Emperor's
coronation, the face of Napoleon, lighted
up and suddenly displayed by this flame,
appeared almost as a vision to the
soldiers of the nearest bivouacs. A cry
was raised, "It is the anniversary of
the coronation ! Vive I'Empereur!" —
an outburst of loyal ardor which Na-
poleon in vain attempted to check with

334

BATTLES OF AUSTBRLITZ AND JENA.

the words, "Silence till to-morrow.
Now you have only to sharpen your
bayonets."

But the same thought, the same cry,
was taken up and flew with lightning
quickness from bivouac to bivouac. All
made torches of whatever material was
at hand. Some pulled down the field-
shelters for the purpose — some used the
straw that had been collected to form
their beds ; and in an instant, as if by
enchantment, thousands of lights flared
upwards along the whole French line,
and by thousands of voices the cry was
repeated, "Vive I'Empereur !" Thus
was improvised, within sight of the as-
tonished enemy, the most striking of
illuminations, the most memorable of
demonstrations, by which the admira-
tion and devotion of a whole army have
ever been shown to its general.

His Happiest Night.

It is said that the Russians believed
the French to be burning their shelt-
ers as a preliminary to retreat, and
that their confidence was thereby in-
creased. As to Napoleon, though at
first annoyed at the outburst, he was
soon gratified and deeply touched by
the heart-felt enthusiasm displayed, and
said that "This night is the happiest of
my life." For some time he continued
to move from bivouac to bivouac, tell-
ing his soldiers how much he appreci-
ated their affection, and saying those
kindly and encouraging words which
no one better than he knew how to use.

The morning began to break on the
2d of December. As he buckled on his
sword, Napoleon said to the staff" gath-
ered round — " Now, gentlemen, let us
commence a great day." He mounted,
and from different points were seen ar-

riving to receive his last orders the
renowned chiefs of his various corpS'
d'' armee^ each followed by a single aide-
de-camp. There were Marshal Prince
Murat, Marshal Lannes, Marshal Soult,
Marshal Bernadotte, and Marshal Da-
voust. What a formidable circle of
men, each of whom had already gath-
ered glory on many different fields !

Matchless Murat.

Murat, distinctively the cavalry gen-
eral of France, the intrepid paladin who
had led his charging squadrons on all
the battle-fields of Italy and Egypt ;
Eannes, whose prowess at Montebello
had made victory certain ; Soult, the
veteran of the long years of war on the
Rhine and in Germany, the hero of
Altenkirchen, and Massena's most dis-
tinguished lieutenant at the battle of
Zurich; Bernadotte, not more renowned
as a general in the field than as the
minister of war who prepared the con-
quest of Holland ; Davoust, the stern
disciplinarian and leader, unequalled
for cool gallantry and determination —
all were gathered at this supreme mo
ment round one of the greatest masters
of war in ancient or modern times, to
receive his inspiration and to part like
thunder-clouds bearing the storm which
was to shatter the united armies of two
Empires.

The Emperor's general plan of action
was already partly known, but he now
repeated it to his marshals in detail.
He was more than ever certain, from
the last reports which he had received,
that the enemy was continuing the flank
movement, and would hurl the heaviest
attacks on the French right near Tel-
nitz.

To Davoust was entrusted the duty

BATTLES OF AUSTERI.ITZ AND JENA.

335

of holding the extreme right and check-
ing, in the defiles formed by the lakes,
thf heads of the enemy's columns
which, since the previous day, had been
more and more entangling themselves
in these difficult passes.

Of Soult's three divisions, one was to
assist Davoust on the right, while the
other two, already formed in columns
of attack, were to hold themselves ready
to throw their force on the Pratzen
plateau.

Bernadotte's two divisions were to
advance against the same position on
Soult's left. This combined onslaught
of four divisions on the centre of the
Russo-Austrians which they had weak-
ened by the movement to their left,
would be supported by the Emperor
himself with the Imperial Guard and
the Grenadiers of Oudinot and Duroc.
Lannes was ordered to hold the left,
particularly the " Santon " height;
while Prince Murat, at the head of his
horsemen, was to charge through the
intervals of the infantry upon the allied
cavalry which appeared to be in great
strength in that part of the field.

Napoleon's Strategy.
It was thus Napoleon's intention to
await and check the enemy's attacks
which might be expected on both his
flanks, and more especially on his right,
while he himself made a determined
and formidable movement against their
centre, where he hoped to cut them in
two, and then, from the dominant posi-
tion of the Pratzen plateau, turn an
overwhelming force against the masses
on their too-far-advanced left, which,
entangled and cramped in its action
among the lakes, would then be crushed
or forced to yield as prisoners.

It was eight o'clock. The thick
wintry mist hung in the valley of the
Goldbach and rolled upwards to the
Pratzen plateau. Its obscurity, height-
ened by the lingering smoke of bivouac
fires, concealed the French columns of
attack. The thunder of artillery and
the rattle of musketry told that the al-
lied attack on the French right had
begun and was being strenuously re-
sisted, while silence and darkness
reigned over the rest of the line. Sud-
denly, over the heights, the sun rose,
brilliantly piercing the mist and light-
ing the battle-field — the " Sun of Aus-
terlitz," of which Napoleon ever after
loved to recall the remembrance.

Furious Onslaught.

The moment of action for the French
centre had come, and the corps of Soult
and Bernadotte, led by the divisions of
Vandamme and St. Hilaire, rushed for-
wards. No influence that could animate
the minds of these gallant troops was
wanting. They fought directly under the
eye of their Emperor. They were led
by chiefs in whom they had implicit
confidence.

The Pratzen height was escladed at
the double, attacked in front and on
the right and left, and the appearance
of the assailants was so sudden and un-
expected, as they issued from the cur-
tain of mist, that the Russians were
completely surprised. They had no
defensive formation ready, and were
still occupied in the movement towards
their left. They hastily formed in three
lines, however, and some of their ar-
tillery were able to come into action.
Their resistance was feeble. One after
another, their lines, broken by the stern
bayonet charge, were driven back in

336

BATTLES OF AUSTERUTZ AND JENA.

hopeless confusion, and at nine o'clock
Napoleon was master of the Pratzen
plateau.

Meanwhile, on the left, Lannes and
Murat were fighting- an independent
battle with the Princes lyichtenstein
and Bagration. Murat, as the senior
marshal and brother-in-law of the Em-
peror, was nominally the superior ; but,
in real fact, Lannes, directed the opera-
tions of the infantry, which Murat pow-
erfully supplemented and aided with
his cavalry. General Caffarelli's divi-
sion was formed on the plain on Lan-
nes's right, while General Suchet's di-
vision was on his left, supported by the
"Santon" height, from which poured
the fire of eighteen heavy guns.

Dashing Cavalry Charge.

The light cavalry brigades of Mil-
haud and Treilhard were pushed for-
ward in observation across the high
road to Olmutz. The cavalry divisions
of Kellermann, Walther, Nansouty, and
d'Hautpoul were disposed in two mas-
sive columns of squadrons on the right
of Caflfarelli. Against this array were
brought eighty-two squadrons of ca-
valry under Lichtenstein, supported by
the serried divisions of Bagration's
infantry and a heavy force of artil-
lery.

The combat was commenced by the
light cavalry of Kellermann, which
charged and overthrew the Russo- Aus-
trian advanced guard. Attacked in turn
by the Uhlans of the Grand Duke Con-
stantine, Kellermann retired through
the intervals of Caffarelli's division,
which, by a well-sustained fire in two
ranks, checked the Uhlans and emptied
many of their saddles. Kellermann re-
formed his division and again charged,

supported by Sebastiani's brigade of
Dragoons.

Then followed a succession of charges
by the chivalry of France, led by Mu-
rat with all the elan of his boiling cour-
age. Kellermann, Walther, and Sebas-
tian! were all wounded, the first two
generals seriously. In the last of these
charges the 5 th Chasseurs, commanded
by Colonel Corbineau, broke the forma-
tion of a Russian battalion and cap-
tured its standard. Caffarelli's infantry
were close at hand, and, pushing for-
ward, made an Austrian battalion lay
down its arms.

A regiment of Russian Dragoons
made a desperate advance to rescue
their comrades, and, mistaking them
for Bavarians in the smoke and turmoil,
Murat ordered the French infantry to
cease firing. The Russian Dragoons,
thus encountering no resistance, pene-
trated the French ranks and almost
succeeded in taking Murat himself pri-
soner^ But, consummate horseman and
man-at-arms as he was, he cut his way
to safety through the enemy, at the
head of his personal escort.

The Russians Hurled Back.

The allies profited by this diversion
to again assume the offensive. Then
came the opportunity for the gigantic
Cuirassiers of Nansouty, which hurled
the Russian cavalry back upon their
infantry, and, in three successive on-
slaughts, scattered the infantry itself,
inflicting terrible losses with their long,
heavy swords, and seizing eight pieces
of artillery. The whole of Cafiarelli's
division advanced, supported by one of
Bernadotte's divisions from the centre,
and, changing its front to the right, cut
the centre of Bagration's infantry,

BATTI<BS OF AUSTBRLITZ AND JENA.

537

driving its greater part towards Pratzen,
separated from those who still fought
at the extremity of their line.

The Austro-Russian cavalry rallied
in support of Bagration, who was now
hotly pressed by Suchet. Then came
a magnificently combined movement of
Dragoons, Cuirassiers, and infantry.
The Dragoons drove back the Austro-
Russian squadrons behind their infan-
try. Simultaneously followed the lev-
elled bayonets of Suchet' s division and
the crushing shock of d'Hautpoul's
mail-clad warriors. The victory was
decided — the Russian battalions were
crushed, losing a standard, eleven guns,
and 1 , 800 prisoners.

Allied Army Shattered.

The rout was completed by the rapid
advance of the light cavalry brigades
of Treilhard and Milhaud on the left,
and of Kellermann on the right, which
swept away all that encountered them,
and drove the shattered allied troops
towards the village of Austerlitz. The
Russo- Austrian losses on this part of
the field of battle amounted to 1,200
or 1,500 killed, 7,000 or 8,000 prisoners,
two standards, and twenty-seven pieces
of artillery.

While Napoleon had thus struck a
heavy blow at the allied centre and had
been completely victorious on his left,
his right, under Davoust, was with difii-
culty holding its own against Buxhow-
den (who had assumed the command of
the columns of Doctorof and Kien-
mayer), and but that the masses brought
against it were unable to deploy their
strength it must inevitably have been
crushed. Thirty thousand foemen of
all arms were pressing in assault upon
xo,ooo French, already wearied by a
22

long and rapid march to their position
at Raygern. But Davoust was able to
concentrate what power he had, and to
meet at advantage the heads only of
the columns which were winding their
way along the narrow passes that opened
between the lakes and through the
marshy ground in his front.

A Critical Moment.

Even so the strain was terrible, and
would have been more than less hardy
troops under a less able and determined
leader could have stood. But Napoleon
was quite alive to the necessities of the
gallant soldiers who were standing their
ground so staunchly. He ordered his
reserve of Grenadiers and the Imperial
Guard to move up to the support of his
right centre and to threaten the flank
of the columns that were attacking
Davoust, while he also directed the two
divisions of Soult's corps, which had
made the attack on the Pratzen plateau
against Buxhowden's rear.

It was one o'clock, and at this mo-
ment, while the orders just given were
being executed, the Russian infantry,
supported by the Russian Imperial
Guard, made a desperate effort to re-
trieve the fortunes of the day near
Pratzen, and threw themselves in a
fierce bayonet charge on the divisions
of Vandamme and St. Hilaire, whic^.
offered a stout resistance. But, with
the Russian Guard ready to join in the
combat, the odds against the French
divisions were too great. It was the
crisis of the day.

Napoleon, from the commanding po-
sition where he stood, saw before him
the Emperor Alexander's guard advanc-
ing in dense masses to regain their
morning position and to sweep before

338

BATTLES OF AUSTERUTZ AND JENA.

them his men, wearied and harassed
by the day's struggle. At the same
time he heard on his right the redoubled
fire of the advanced Russian left, which
was pressing Davoust and was threat-
ening his rear. From the continued
and increasing roar of musketry and
artillery it almost seemed as if success
must, after all, attend the great flank
movement of the allies. Small wonder
if even his war-hardened nerves felt a
thrill of confusion and anxiety when
he saw dimly appearing through the
battle smoke another black mass of
moving troops.

Panic- Stricken Fugitives.

" Ha ! Can those, too, be Russians ?"
he exclaimed to the solitary staff-officer
whom the exigencies of the day had
still left at his side. Another look re-
assured him, however. The tall bear-
skins of the moving column showed
him that it was his own Guard, which,
under Duroc, was moving towards the
lakes to the support of Soult and Da-
voust. His right and rear were, at any
rate so far safe.

But the Russian intantry attack had
been followed by a headlong charge of
the Chevalier Guards and Cuirassiers of
the Russian Guard, under the Grand
Duke Constantine, brother of the Em-
peror Alexander, supported by numer-
ous lines of cavalry. So well led and
so impetuous was the attack, that the
two battalions on the left of Vandam-
me's division were broken and swept
away in headlong flight. One of these
battalions belonged to the 4th of the
line, of which Napoleon's brother Joseph
was colonel, and the Emperor saw it
lose its eagle and abandon its position,
shattered and destroyed, forming the

one dark spot to sully the brilliancy of
French steadfastness on that day of
self-devotion.

The tide of panic-stricken fugitives
almost surged against the Emperor
himself. All efforts to rally them were
in vain. Maddened with fear, they
heard not the voices of generals and
officers imploring them not to abandon
the field of honor and their Emperor.
Their only response was to gasp out
mechanically: "Vive I'Empereur!"
while still hurrying their frantic pace.
Napoleon smiled at them in pity ; then,
with a gesture of contempt, he said :
" lyct them go ! " and, still calm in the
midst of the turmoil, sent General
Rapp to bring up the cavalry of his
Guard.

A Bloody Struggle.

Rapp was titulai '^■nlonel of the Ma-
melukes, a corps which reached the
glories of Egypt and the personal re-
gard which Napoleon, as a man, had
been able to inspire into Orientals.
They, with the Grenadiers-a-Cheval
and the Chasseurs of the Guard, now
swooped upon the Russian squadrons.
The struggle of the melee was bloody
and obstinate between the picked
horsemen of Western and Eastern
Europe ; but the Russian chivalry was
at length overwhelmed and driven back
with immense loss.

Many standards and prisoners fell
into the hands of the French, amongst
others Prince Repnin, Colonel of the
Chevalier Guard. His regiment, whose
ranks were filled with men of the
noblest families in Russia, had fought
with a valor worthy of their name, and
lay almost by ranks upon the field. It
had been the mark of the giant Greua-

BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA.

339

diers-a-Cheval, whose savage war-cry
in the great charge had been, as they
swayed their heavy sabres, " I^et us
make the dames of St. Petersburg weep
to-day ! ' '

When success was assured, Rapp re-
turned to report to Napoleon — a war-
like figure, as he approached, alone, at
a gallop, with proud mein, the light of
battle in his eye, his sword dripping
with blood and a sabre cut on his fore-
head.

A Gallant Exploit.

"Sire, we have overthrown and de-
stroyed the Russian Guard and taken
their artillery."

•'It was gallantly done : I saw it,"
replied the Emperor. "But you are
wounded."

"It is nothing, sire: it is only a
scratch.''

" It is another quartering of nobility,
and I know of none that can be more
illustrious."

Immediately afterwards the young
Count Apraxin, an officer of artillery
who had been taken prisoner by the
Chasseurs, was brought before Napo-
leon. He struggled, wept, and wrung
his hands in despair, crying : " I have
lost my battery ; I am dishonored :
would that I could die!" Napoleon
tried to console and soothe him with the
words, "Calm yourself, young man,
and learn that there is never disgrace
in being conquered by Frenchmen."

The French army was now com-
pletely successful on its centre and left.
In the distance could be seen, retiring
towards Ansterlitz, the remains of the
Russian reserves, which had relin-
quished hope of regaining the central
plateau and abandoned Buxhowden's

wing to its fate. Their retreat was
harassed by the artillery of the Impe-
rial Guard, whose fire ploughed through
their long columns, carrying with it
death and consternation. Napoleon left
to Murat and Ivannes the completion of
their own victory. To Bernadotte, with
the greater part of the Guard, he entrust-
ed the final crushing of the enemies who
had been driven from the Pratzen pla-
teau ; while he himself, with all of
Soult's corps, the remainder of his cav-
alry, infantry, and reserve artillery de-
scended from the heights and threw
himself on the rear of the Austro-Rus-
sian left near Telnitz and the lakes.
This unfortunate wing — nearly 30,000
men — had in vain striven, since the
moi ning, to force its way through Da-
voust's 10,000.

Valor Was in Vain.

Now, still checked in front and en-
tangled in the narrow roads by the
Goldbach and the lakes, it found itself
in hopeless confusion, attacked and
ravaged with fire from three sides simul-
taneously by Davoust, Soult, Duroc
with his Grenadiers and Vandamme.
It fought with a gallantry and stern-
ness which drew forth the admiration
of its enemies, but surrounded, driven,
overwhelmed, it could not hope to ex-
tricate itself from its difficulties. There
was no way of escape open but the
Menitz lake itself, whose frozen surface
seemed to present a path to safety, and
in an instant the white expanse was
blackened by the flying multitude.

The most horribly disastrous phase
of the whole battle was at hand. The
shot of the French artillery which was
firing on the retreat broke the ice at
many points, and its frail support gave

340

BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA.

way. The water welled through the
cracks and washed over the broken
fragments. Thousands of Russians,
with horses, artillery and train, sank
into the lake and were engulfed. Few
succeeded in struggling to the shore
and taking advantage of the ropes and
other assistance which their conquerors
strove to put within their reach. About
2,000, who had been able to remain on
the road between the two lakes, made
good their retreat. The remainder were
either dead or prisoners.

Suspected Traitor.

At four o'clock in the afternoon the
battle was over, and there was nothing
left for the French to do but to pursue
and collect the spoils of their conquest.
This duty was performed with energy
by all the commanders except Berna-
dotte (even then more than suspected
of disloyalty to his great chief), who
allowed the whole of the Russo-Aus-
trian right, which had been defeated
by Lannes and Murat and driven from
its proper line of retreat on Olmutz, to
defile scatheless past his front and to
seek shelter in the direction of Hungary.

After the great catastrophe on the
Menitz lake which definitely sealed the
issue of the conflict. Napoleon passed
slowly along the whole battle-field,
from the French right to their left.
The ground was covered with piles of
the poor remains of those who had died
a soldier's death, and with vast numbers
of wounded laid suffering on the frozen
plain. Surgeons and ambulances were
already everywhere at work, but their
efforts were feeble in comparison with
the shattered, groaning multitude who
were in dire need of help. The Emperor
paused by every disabled follower and

spoke words of sympathy and comfort.
He himself, with his personal attend-
ants and his staff, did all in their power
to mitigate the pangs of each and to
give some temporary relief till better
assistance should arrive.

As the shades of night fell on the
scene of slaughter and destruction, the
mist of the morning again rolled over
the plain, bringing with it an icy rain,
which increased the darkness. Na-
poleon ordered the strictest silence to
be maintained, that no faint cry from
a miserable sufferer should pass un-
heard ; and his surgeon Ywan, with his
Mameluke orderly Roustan, gave to
many a one, who would otherwise have
died, a chance of life by binding up
their hurts and restoring their powers
with a draught of brandy from the Im-
perial canteen.

Care for the Wounded.

It was nearly ten o'clock at night
when the Emperor arrived at the Ol-
mutz road, having almost felt his way
from one wounded man to another as
they lay where each attack had been
made and each, stubborn defense main-
tained. He passed the night at the
small posthouse of Posoritz, supping on
a share of the soldiers' rations, which
was "Brought from the nearest bivouac,
and issuing order after order about
searching for the wounded and convey-
ing them to the field hospitals. Though
many of the most noted leaders in the;
French army were wounded in the
great battle, comparatively few were
killed. One of the most distinguished
dead was General Morland, who com-
manded the Cliasseurs-a-Cheval of the
Guard. His regiment had suffered ter-
rible losses in the charge under Rapp

BATTLES OF AUSTERI.1T2 AND JENA.

Si\

against the Russian Guard, and he
himself had fallen, fighting amongst
the foremost.

Napoleon, who was always anxious
to do everything to raise the spirit of
his troops and to excite their emulation,
ordered that the body of General Mor-
land should be preserved and conveyed
to Paris, there to be interred in a spec-
ially magnificent tomb which he pro-
'^ posed to build on the Esplanade of the
"* Invalides. The doctors with the army
had neither the time nor the materials
necessary to embalm the general's body,
so, as a simple means of conservation,
they enclosed it in a barrel of rum,
which was taken to Paris. But cir-
cumstances delayed the construction of
the tomb which the Bmperor intended
for its reception until the fall of the
Empire in 1814. When the barrel was
then opened for the private interment
of the body by General Morland's rela-
tions, they were astonished to find that
the rum had made the dead general's
moustaches grow so extraordinarily
that they reached below his waist.

The Host in Flight.
The defeat suffered by the Russians
was so crushing, and their army had
been thrown into such confusion, that
all who had escaped from the disaster
of Austerlitz fled with all speed to
Galicia, where there was a hope of be-
ing beyond the reach of the conqueror.
The rout was complete.. The French
made a large number of prisoners, and
found the roads covered with abandoned
guns, baggage, and material of war.
The Emperor Alexander, overcome by
* his misfortunes, left it to his ally,
Francis II., to treat with Napoleon,
and authorized him to make the best

terms he could for both the defeated
empires.

On the very evening of the 2d of De-
cember the Emperor of Austria had
asked for an interview with Napoleon,
and the victor met the vanquished on
the 4th. An armistice was signed on
the 6th, which was shortly afterwards
followed by a treaty of peace concluded
at Presburg.

The total losses of the Austro-Rus-
sians at Austerlitz were about 10,000
killed, 30,000 prisoners, 46 standards,
186 cannon, 400 artillery caissons, and
all their baggage. Their armies prac-
tically no longer existed, and only
about 25,000 disheartened men could
be rallied from the wreck.

Generous to the Conquered.

In the joy of victory Napoleon showed
himself generous to Austria and Russia
in the terms which he imposed, and he
at once set free Prince Repnin, with all
of the Russian Imperial Guard who had
fallen into his hands. To his own army
he was lavish of rewards and acknowl-
edgements of its valor, and in the fam-
ous order of the day which he published
he first made use of the well-known
expression— "Soldiers, I am content
with you." Besides a large distribu-
tion of prize-money to his troops, he
decreed that liberal pensions should be
granted to the widows of the fallen, and
also that their orphan children should
be cared for, brought up, and settled
in life at the expense of the State.

The campaign of Austerlitz is prob-
ably the most striking and dramatic of
all those undertaken by Napoleon, and
its concluding struggle was the most
complete triumph of his whole career.
It was th'^: first in which he engaged

342

BATTIvES OF AUSTERUTZ AND JENA.

after assuming the title of Emperor and
becoming the sole and irresponsible
ruler of France. Unlike the vast masses
of men which he directed in subsequent
wars, his army was then almost entirely
composed of Frenchmen, and its glories
belonged to France alone. Though for
several years to come the great Emper-
or's fame was to remain undimmed by
the clouds of reverse, it never shone
with a brighter lustre than at the close
of 1805.

Fierce Battle of Jena.

As the bloody battle of Austerlitz
was one of those great pivotal strug-
gles that decide the fate of empires,
so was the equally sanguinary and de-
cisive battle of Jena. Never was the
superb courage of the far-famed Murat
and other great leaders more gallantly
displayed than on that historic field.

To the Prussian people 1806 was a
terrible year, and their subsequent re-
prisals of 1 8 14, 181 5, and even of 1870,
did not efface the memory of Jena, as
the French elect to call the little Saxon
town. Whatever difference of opinion
may exist as to the good faith of Napo-
leon and the Prussian Government re-
spectively in their diplomatic relations,
all are agreed that the military spirit of
Prussia hastened on the war ; and never
did nation undertake hostilities at a
more unfortunate moment or in clum-
sier fashion. ''

The French army, returning slowly
from its glorious campaign of Auster-
litz, was close at hand, and flushed
with victory ; and although in rags,
with its pay held advisedly in arrears,
it was in high moral feather, and look-
ing forward to the fetes that were pro-
mised it when it should arrive in France.

The Prussian army, on the othei
hand, while full ©f undoubted courage,
was precisely in that condition one
would expect as the result of its ruling
system. Its regiments were farmed out
by their colonels ; class distinction was
rife among the officers, and the men
were ruled by " Corporal Schlague " —
in other words, flogged unmercifully
into shape. Their drill and traditions
went back to days of Frederick the
Great, and the only pension granted to
the discharged veteran was a license to
beg publicly!

Wretched was the condition of the
soldier, even when serving, yet it was
this army, with little or no sympathy
between its officers and meis, strapped
up in tight uniforms, hampered with
absurd regulations, and in every re-
spect half a century behind l;he times,
that sharpened its sabres on the door-
steps of the French ambassador at Ber-
lin, and clamored wildly to engage the
invincible legions of the Emperor.

Disastrous Defeat.

It had its wish, against the better
judgment of its sovereign, and met
with perhaps the most crushing defeat
recorded in history, being sacrificed to
the gross stupidity of its leaders, of
whom a word must be said here in jus-
tice to the army itself.

The Duke of Brunswick, its actual
commander-in-chief, the father of the
unfortunate English Queen Caroline,
was seventy years old, and credited with
a great military reputation, though au-
thentic proofs of it may be searched for
in vain. He had fought under the cele-
brated Frederick, who disliked him,
and had been beaten by the riff-raff in
the wars of the Revolution. One re-

BATTlvES 01? AUSTERLITZ AND JKNA.

34a

view day at Magdeburg, when a field-
marslial, he sprang from the saddle, al-
lowed his charger to run loose, and
caned a non-commissioned officer for
some mistake in a manoeuvre ; but
nevertheless it was into the hands of
this egregious old dolt that the Prussian
fortunes were entrusted.

Held a Long Pow-wow.

Associated with Brunswick — and in
truth they seem to have been unable to
do anything without previously holding
a long pow-wow when they ought to
have been marching — were Marshal Mol-
lendorf, a worn-out old man of eighty-
two ; Prince Frederick Louis of Hohen-
lohe-Ingelfingen, an infantry general,
whose sixty years had afforded him lit-
tle opportunity of distinction in the
field ; Colonel Massenbach, Hohenlohe's
quartermaster-general, whose practical
advice was not listened to, probably
because it was practical; and several
other officers, some of whom distin-
guished themselves later on in the War
of Liberty, but the majority men of no
account, who squabbled at the councils,
disobeyed orders, and had nothing but
personal bravery to commend them.

At the head of the younger branch of
officers was Prince Louis Ferdinand, a
dashing, hare-brained young fellow,
whose passion was pretty equally divi-
ded between the worship of Venus and
Mars, and whose early death was much
deplored. Between the two factions,
ancient and modern, there was per-
petual strife, and between these two
stools, which the energetic French
kicked over in an incredibly short time,
the Prussian army came heavily to the
ground.

" The insolent braggarts shall soon

learn that our weapons need no sharp-
ening!" said Napoleon, when Marbot
told him of the affront to his ambassa-
dor ; and again, when he read the fool-
ish demand that his troops should cross
the Rhine and abandon German terri-
tory by a given date, he exclaimed to
Bertheir, " Prince, we will be punctu-
ally at the rendezvous ; but instead of
being in France on the 8th, we will be
in Saxony."

The October of i8o6 was a splendid
month — a slight frost during the nights,
but the days magnificent, with white
camuli rolling across the blue, when
the blue was not entirely unclouded ;
and on the 8th day of that eventful
month the French advanced in three
great columns into the rocky valleys
that led from Franconia to Saxony ; an
army — when the cavalry and artillery
of the Guard joined it — of 186,000 men,
led by masters in the art of war.

Napoleon in the Ranks.

The Emperor accompanied the centre
column, composed of the infantry of
the Guard, under Lefebvre, husband of
the well-known "Madame Sans-Gene,"
Bernadotte's ist corps, Davout's 3d
Corps, and Murat's Cavalry Reserve;
the whole marching by Kronach on the
road to Schleitz and Jena. The right
column consisting of Soult's 4th and
Ney's 6th Corps with a Bavarian divis-
ion, set out for HofF by forced marches,
and the left, made up of Lannes with
the 5th Corps and Augereau with the
7th, turned its face towards Coburg,
Grafenthal, and Saalfeld.

The Prussians, to the number of 125,-
000, which did not include garrisons
and sundry detached forces, were also
divided into three bodies; General

344

BATtI.ES OF AUStERLlTZ AND JENA.

Rucliel with the right, 30,000, being
on the Hessian frontier about Eisenach ;
the main army of 55,000, under Bruns-
wick and the King in person, around
Magdeburg ; and the left wing, under
Hohenlohe, 40,000 strong, being ad-
"^'■anced towards the enemy round and
about the fortified places of Schleitz,
Saalfeld, Saalburg, and Hoflf, in defi-
ance of Brunswick's orders, which de-
sired Hohenlohe to recross the Saale
and take post behind the mountains
, that rise above that river.

Dense Ignorance.

Their motive was to cut off Napoleon
from his base in the Maine valley ; but
directly they heard that his march was
directed towards their left and centre,
they changed their plans and attempted
a concentration about Weimar, which
exposed their magazines, threw their
flank invitingly open to the enemy, and
necessitated marches by cross roads and
byways in a country of which extraor-
dinary fact, their staff possessed no re-
liable map !

While this movement was in progress
the French came upon them, and struck
the first blow at the little town of Saal-
burg, where a portion of Hohenlohe's
men under General Tauenzien were en-
trenched behind the river. It was the
first day of the advance, and Murat, with
some light cavalry and the famous 27th
lyight Infantry, lost no time in falling to.

Some cannon-shots, an advance of the
27th I/Cger, and Tauenzien melted away
in the direction of Schleitz, where on
the 9th, about noon, the centre found
him drawn up beyond the Wisenthal
in order of battle with his back against
a height. While Bernadotte, who com-
manded, was reconnoitring, Napoleon

arrived, and ordered the attack. Ber-
nadotte sent the 27th Leger forward
under General Maisons, and the regi-
ment quickly debouched from the town
upon the enemy; but finding himself
in the presence of a superior force,
Tauenzien again ordered a retreat.

Terrific Oombat,

The 94th and 95th of the lyine under
Drouet followed close on their heels,
mounted the height, and hastened down
the other slope; while Murat, riding at
the head of the 4th Hussars — the regi-
ment in which Marshal Ney had made
his debut as a private — charged the
cavalry that turned upon him. At the
first shock the 4th overthrew the Prus-
sians ; but they were reinforced by sev-
eral fresh squadrons, and Murat sent for
the 5th Chasseurs post haste, who com-
ing up at the gallop flung their green
and yellow ranks into the melee.

Tauenzien hurled his hussars and the
red Saxon dragoons against the two
regiments, and matters looked serious
for Murat, although Captain Razout of
the 94th opened from an ambuscade and
killed fifty of them ; but Maisons arriv-
ing with five companies of the 27th
Leger poured in such a terrible fire that
200 red troopers went down in a mass
and the rest bolted. These dragoons
were antiquated-looking fellows, with
cocked hats and pigtails, their officers
riding with huge canes significantly
dangling from wrist or saddle ; and as
they went about to the rear of the 4th
Hussars and the 5 th Chasseurs re-formed
and spurred in pursuit, driving them
into the woods among their disorgan-
ized infantry.

It was short and sharp, but the effect
upon the Prussians — who left 2,000

i

BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JBNA.

84&

muskets behind them in their flight,
nearly 500 prisoners, and 300 killed and
wounded — was serious.

Murat still pushed on, and next day,
the loth, Lasalle captured the enemy's
baggage, and a pontoon train. Napoleon
writing that the cavalry ' ' was saddled
in gold ; " but on the same day a much
more important engagement took place
at Saalfeld between the French left,
under Marshal lyannes, and Prince
Ivouis, who commanded Hohenlohe's
rear-guard. Saalfeld was a little walled
town of about 5,000 inhabitants, and
partly to allow time for the evacuation
of the magazines in its rear, partly from
a burning desire to fight, Prince Louis
obtained Hohenlohe's permission to re-
main there.

A Strong Character.

He was then thitty-four, brave as a
lion, but insubordinate, and of very
loose morals. In Prussia he is regarded
as a hero, and there is something in his
oval face as it hangs in the Hohenzoll-
ern Museum with the hair tied with a
ribbon, that reminds one of the English
"Prince Charlie." He had eighteen
guns, eighteen squadrons of hussars,
and eleven battalions of infantry ; and
with that force he rashly engaged the
experienced Cannes, who was advanc-
ing with 25,000 troops, although in
effect only the artillery, two regiments
of cavalry, and the division of Suchet
came into action. The division of
Suchet found itself before the enemy at
7 o'clock in the morning.

Instantly ranging his guns on the
heights that commanded the Prussians,
Lannes opened fire, and sent part of
Suchet' s skirmishers through the woods
to gall Prince Louis' right. Until

nearly i o'clock the Prussians stood
their ground, but Suchet working round
in their rear and Lannes pouring down
upon them in front, they broke and fled,
leaving fifteen guns behind them.

Two Gallant Charges.

Louis charged gallantly with two
cavalry regiments flanked by the white-
uniformed Saxon Hussars, but Clapa-
rede's and Vedel's brigades routed them,
and they also retreated. Rallying them
with difiiculty, he charged again at the
head of the Saxon Hussars, whose tall
flowerpot shakoes and bright blue
pelisses were soon jumbled together in
a confused mass among the willow-
fringed marshes by the river bank,
where the scarlet and blue 9th, and the
light blue loth Hussars made short
work of them.

So far the French advance had been
a succession of triumphs, destined to
continue without rebuff for the rest of
the war ; and as the Prussian spirit sank
at the news of each defeat, that of the
invaders rose. Reviewing the 2d Chas-
seurs-a-Cheval at Lobenstein on the 12th
of October, Napoleon asked Colonel
Bousson how many men he had pre-
sent.

" Five hundred, sire," said the colonel;
" but there are many raw troops among
them."

" What does that signify ? Are they
not all Frenchmen?" was the angry
reply ; and turning to the regiment, he
cried, "My lads, you must not feai
death : when soldiers defy death they
drive him into the enemy's ranks,"
with a motion of his arm which called
forth a sudden convulsive movement
among the squadrons and a wild shout
of enthusiasm.

346

BATTI.es of AUSTERLITZ and JENA.

The losses of the Prussians at Saal-
feld, which are variously stated seemed
to have been about thirty guns, a thou-
sand prisoners, and a similar number
of killed and wounded, together with a
quantity of baggage ; but these were
only the shadows of coming events,
and the French columns moved on
swiftly, learning by the capture of the
post-bag that the enemy were moving
on Weimar from Erfurt.

Fled, in Disorder.

Hohenlohe's troops were ordered to
place the hills and forests of Thuringia
between them and the victorious foe,
and, worn out by marching, were
struggling on in the midst of wagon-
trains, and bad roads, when fugitives
from Saalfeld spread terror among them,
and they fled in disorder across the
Saale into Jena. Napoleon likewise
concentrated his troops, and a map
must be studied to understand their
movements in and among towns and
villages unknown outside the history
of this campaign.

A strong barrier now Intervened be-
tween the tv/o armies, French and Prus-
sian, the river Saale flowing, roughly,
northward to the Elbe through hilly
country, and only passable to an army
at five points where there were bridges
— viz., at Jena, Lobstadt, Dornburg,
Camburg, and Koser, the latter place
opposite Naumburg.

The Prussians having gone helter-
skelter across that river at Jena, they
were virtually hemmed in an angle,
formed by the Thuringian Mountains
to the south and the Saale to the west,
so that as their fortresses, their remain-
ing magazines, and their very capital
lay open to the enemy, they had but

two alternatives — either to make anothei
long flank march to the line of the
Elbe or to stay where they were and
defend the Saale and its fringe of hills.
The Duke of Brunswick, however,
seems to have had a genius for keeping
himself out of harm's way ; and leaving
Hohenlohe to defend the heights of
Jena, though with strict orders not to
attack, and Ruchel to collect the out-
lying forces at Weimar, he set off with
his five divisions, bag and baggage, to
pass the Saale at Naumburg and reach
the line of the Elbe, hastened in this
fatal decision by the news of Davout's
advance on Naumburg — in other words,
he ran away with 65,000 mea and left
others to do the fighting.

Grim Surprises.

On the 13th of October the army
started — ominous date for the supersti-
tiously inclined ; and on the same day
Napoleon, expecting to find the entire
enemy before him, set out from Gera
for Jena, having despatched Montes-
quieu, one of his ofiicers of ordinance,
to the King of Prussia with proposals
of peace — in reality to gain time for his
troops to come up. It was, to a great
extent, a game of cross-purposes ; for
Brunswick, anticipating a free passage
at Naumburg, found Davout and death;
Napoleon, expecting the whole Prus-
sian army beyond Jena, found only its
rear-guard; and Hohenlohe, looking for
Lannes and Augereau, received the full
weight of the Emperor himself with
the bulk of his forces.

lyannes preceded the Emperor, ana
had a sharp skirmish with TaueMzien
beyond the little university town of
Jena, and when Napoleon arrived some
of the quaint gabled houses were burn-

batti,e:s of austerutz and jena.

347

ing — ignited, it is said, by the Prussian
batteries. Jena nestles under the lea
of a range of hills, the most important
being the lyandgrafenberg ; and the
high road to Weimar runs through a
difficult valley named the Muhlthal
from the paper-mill which stood there.

A Saxon Parson.

Having no mind to force that defile,
which determined men might have
rendered a veritable Thermopylae, the
Emperor made a reconnaissance with
Lannes under fire to find some means
of carrying the army over the hills on
to the plateau beyond, where he should
find the Prussians and a natural battle-
ground. I^annes's tirailleurs had cap-
tured a pass, but it was useless for ar.
tillery ; and it was a Saxon parson,
exasperated at the sight of the burning
town, who pointed out a path on the
lyandgrafenberg itself, by which, with
the help of the sappers, the French
could get up their guns. For this ac-
tion the worthy man endured such after
persecution that he was obliged to leave
the country and reside in Paris.

How they cut away the rock and
hauled each cannon to the summit with
teams of twelve horses apiece, how the
battery that was to open fire next morn-
ing stuck fast in the dark and was as-
sisted by Napoleon with a lantern in
his hand, is well known. During the
long, cold night the Prussian bivouac
fires lit up the horizon beyond the hill-
tops, but those of the French army
made only a faint gleam high up on the
crest of the mountain, and the enemy
saw nothing to warn them that 40,000
men were tightly packed there, the
crossbelts of one almost touching the
cowskin pack of his front rank.

Suchet's division lay waiting for
dawn with its right on the Rauhthal
ravine ; Gazan lurked on the left before
the village of Cospoda, 4,000 of the
Guard formed a huge square, in the
centSie of which the Emperor snatched
a short repose, and the engineers were
busy widening the Steiger path for the
passage of the guns.

The Capitaine Cogniet, then a private
in the Grenadiers of the Guard, has
told us how twenty men per company
were allowed to descend into the nar-
row streets of the deserted town below
them to search for food ; how they
found it in plenty, together with good
wine in the cellars of the hotels, each
grenadier bringing back three bottles,
two in his fur cap, and one in his pocket,
with which they drank to the health of
the King of Prussia ; how they imbibed
hot wine all night, carrying it to the
artillery, who were half-dead with fa-
tigue ; and — ingenuous Cogniet ! — con-
fessing that the Guard up on the moun-
tain side were all more or less elevated
in a double sense.

Shrouded in Fog.

At last the morning came, but with
it a fog so thick that the enemy were
invisible. Napoleon had been astir at
four o'clock, and having sent his final
orders to his marshals, issued from the
curtains of his blue and white striped
tent, and passed before Ivannes's corps
by torchlight.

"Soldiers," said he, "the Prussian
army is turned as the Austrian was a
year ago at Ulm. Fear not its renowned
cavalry; oppose to their charges firm
squares and the bayonet."

The cheers of the soldiers still carried
no warning to the Prussian lines. Theii

348

BATTXES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA.

hussars had intercepted Montesquieu
during the night, and arguing from his
message of peace that there would be
no fighting on the 14th, the army had
made no provision even for the day's
rations, and lay in the fog in fancied
security.

Then, about six, when the mist light-
^ ened, came a rude awakening. The
17th IvCger, and a chosen battalion,
under Claparede, crept forward in sin-
gle line, flanked by the 34th and 40th
in close column, commanded by Reille,
with the 64th and 88th, under Vedel,
in their rear — in short, Suchet\s division
making silently for Closwitz, while
Gazan felt his way towards Cospoda on
Suchet's left.

Fire from Ambusli.

With Gazan were the 21st Leger, and
the 28th, looth, and 103d of the Line,
and the two divisions enveloped in the
fog drew nearer and nearer to the un-
suspecting foe until, after they had
groped their way for nearly an hour,
Claparede suddenly received the fire of
Zweifel's Prussian battalion and the
Saxon ones of Frederick Augustus and
Rechten, seeing only the flash of mus-
ketry from the wood that surrounded
Closwitz. The 17th returned the fire
warmly, firing into the vapor before
them, but when they saw the trees
looming up in front, Claparede charged
and bayoneted them out of the wood
and village.

Gazan was also successful in his attack
on Cospoda, and, advancing farther,
took the hamlet of Lutzenrode from the
enemy's fusileiers ; but a withering fire
was soon opened on both divisions by
Cerrini's Saxons, which they sustained
for some time until the 34th, which had

relieved the 17th, went at them with
the bayonet and put them to flight, a
disorder which carried the rest of Tau-
enzien's corps away, leaving twenty
cannon and a host of fugitives in the
hands of L^annes, who followed at a
swinging pace down hill after the
cowards.

In less than two hours they had
cleared their front for the army on the
heights to deploy. A lull came about
nine o'clock, and before the action was
resumed Ney had arrived at speed ;
Soult with one division took post behind
Closwitz ; and Augereau, who was then
lamenting the loss of his amiable wife,
after pushing Heudelet, his guns, and
cavalry along the Muhlthal towards
Weimar, left the Gibbet Hill with Des-
jardin and placed himself on Gazan's
left among the fine fir woods that clothed
the plateau.

Preparing for Action.

The mist was rising and promised to
break, but it was yet some time before
the sun shone brightly. Prince Hohen-
lohe, whom disaster seemed to pursue,
galloped to his troops, who were en-
camped on the Weimar road awaiting the
French left wing as they thought, where
Tauenzien's fugitives soon alarmed him,
and called forth his better qualities to
prepare for a general action.

Hurrying the Prussian infantry under
Grawert to occupy Tauenzien's lost posi-
tions, he posted two Saxon brigades
under Burgsdorf and Nehroff, Bogus-
lauski's Prussian battalion, and a strong
force of artillery to hold the Weimar
road to the death, with Cerrini, who
had rallied and been reinforced by four
Saxon battalions, in support.

Dyherrn, with five battalions, acted

BATTI.es of AUSTERI<ITZ and JENA.

349

as reserve to Grawert. Tauenzien was
rallied a long way to the rear, and Hol-
zendorf, who formed Hohenlohe's left,
was ordered to attack the French right,
while he himself should fall on their
centre with cavalry and guns, pending
the arrival of Ruchel from Weimar.

Ready for Onslaught.

The heights above Jena, the ravines,
and the dense woods were capable of
the most stubborn defence, and the
French would have had to fight climb-
ing ; but the passage of the Landgrafen-
berg had altered everything, and as the
sun shone out about ten o'clock Hohen-
lohe saw an astonishing spectacle. The
enemy stretched in dark masses along
the high ground on his own side of the
mountain, outnumbering him in the
proportion of two to one, outflanking
him to left and right, and prepared to
foam down the slope and sweep him off
the face of the earth.

Nor did the foe allow him much time
to digest the surprise ; for the impetu-
ous Ney, who had hurried forward with
3,000 men and deployed in the mist
between Lannes and Augereau, flung
himself upon the village of Vierzehn-
Heiligen in the very centre of the bat-
tlefield, and anticipated the Emperor's
orders for a renewal of the fight.

Soult with St. Hilaire's division ad-
vanced from lyobstadt and constituted
the French right ; Lannes, with Suchet
and Gazan, formed the centre, and Au-
gereau having scrambled out of the
Muhlthal, menaced Iserstadt on the
left ; the Guard and the artillery being
in rear, and Murat's cavalry marching
to join the army. Indignant at the
firing in his front, Napoleon sent to
learn from which corps it proceeded,

and was greatly astonished to find that
Ney, whom he supposed to be still in
the rear, was engaging on his own ac-
count.

Ney's troops were the 2Sth Leger
under Colonel Morel, two battalions
formed of the picked men of several
regiments, and Colbert's light cavalry
brigade, formed of the 3d Hussars and
loth Chasseurs-a-Cheval; and with these
the marshal attacked Hohenlohe with
his usual bravery, leading them, as his
aide-de-camp tells us, "like a coporal
of the line." Hohenlohe's horse-artil-
lery was in position, and the loth Chas-
seurs, forming under cover of a little
wood, darted out upon it, and took
seven guns in one swoop under a fear-
ful fire ; but while they were sabring
away, the Prussian cuirassiers of Hol-
zendorf and Prittzwitz's dragoons came
down with a thunderous rush, and the
loth went about.

A Hard Struggle.

The 3d Hussars, forming behind the
same trees, spurred on the Prussian
flank and checked the cuirassiers for a
moment, but had to retreat in their
turn; and Ney, throwing his infantry
into two squares, found himself in a
bad case at the moment when Napo-
leon reached a height overlooking the
conflict. Sending Bertrand to Ney's
assistance with two light cavalry regi-
ments, he ordered up Lannes; and the
gallant Ney made a heroic struggle to
hold his own, pushing his grenadiers to
the clump of trees that had sheltered
his horsemen, and flinging his riflemen
at Vierzehn-Heiligen itself.

Up came Lannes at the head of the
2 1 St Leger, and as Grawert deployed
before the village in magnificent order,

350

BAtTLBS 01^ AUSf ERUT2 AND JENA.

opening a terrible fire, I^annes led five
of Claparede's and Gazan's regiments
to outflank him. In every part of the
field the crash of musketry and the
boom of heavy cannon resounded. Na-
poleon still believed he had the entire
Prussian army before him, and the stub-
born resistance justified that opinion.

Scene of Carnage.

The Prussian regiments of Zathow
and Lanitz covered themselves with
glory before Vierzehn-Heiligen. The
ouira&siers were true to their traditions
of Seidlitz and the Seven Years' War ;
but inch by inch the French gained
ground, although it was an hour after
midday before they obtained a perma-
nent advantage. Hares fled terrified
about the stubble fields, the soldiers
cheering them as they fought. The
October woods were strewn with dead
men among the fallen leaves, and the
hollow ways were full of smoke.

Thanks to the Prussian horse, Ho-
henlohe took some guns, and his hopes
were so far raised that he wrote to Ru-
chel, " At this moment we beat the
enemy at all points. ' ' He soon learned,
however, that Soult had almost anni-
hilated his left wing, and Augereau
and lyannes under his own eyes drove
back his right more than half a mile.

The brave man appeared everywhere
at once ; now heading his cuirassiers,
now encouraging the infantry, again
peering through the clouds that hung
before the batteries ; but it was all to no
purpose. Grawert was badly wounded,
Dyherrn's five battalions fled before
Augereau, and with a tremendous roll-
ing of drums the whole French army
advanced down the slope, the Guard
included, about two in the afternoon.

Hohenlohe's next letter to Ruchel
was significant. " lyose not a moment
in advancing with your as yet unbroken
troops. Arrange your columns so that
through your openings there may pass
the broken bands of the battle." In
vain Ruchel arrived at last with 20,000
men ; Soult fell upon him and they
made poor stand, the growing rout al-
ready communicating itself to the new-
comers.

The French musicians played under
the heavy fire ; Ruchel was seriously
hurt; Hohenlohe's own regiment and
the grenadiers of Hahn gave way; and,
most terrible of all, Murat and his
cavalry came on the scene and over-
whelmed everything in a whirlwind of
slaughter.

Thousands of Bloody Swords.

No battle can show a carnage more
merciless and horrible than that surge
of heavy horsemen among the flying
Prussians after Jena. They spared noth-
ing in their path, and every one of
those fifteen thousand long swords was
red with blood from point to hilt.

Ruchel' s men had the double mis-
fortune to meet both the victorious
French and their flying countrymen in
a disorganized mass rolling down hill,
and though here and there individual
battalions fought bravely to the last,
panic seized the whole army and it tore
madly to the rear.

Brown- and-gold hussars of Anhalt
Pless ; light infantry in green jackets
piped with red; white Saxon hussars
and grim dragoons with the bristle
taken out of their moustaches, all
mingled in a shocking, terror-stricken
mob, covering the roads and fields for
miles ; Murat's cuirassiers and dragoons

BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA.

351

slashing and slaying nntil compelled to
halt from very weariness.

Many colors were taken in that pur-
suit, and two curious incidents are
worthy of record: Quartermaster Hum-
bert of the 2d Dragoons captured a
standard, but was killed by three mus-
ket-balls, seeing which the dragoon
Fauveau leaped to the ground, rescued
the prize, and carrying it to his colonel
under a hail of shot, said modestly, "It
was the Quartermaster Humbert who
took this flag," for which he received
the Cross the same day.

The other instance was that of Colo-
nel Doullembourg of the ist Dra-
goons, who was unhorsed and momen-
tarily captured, in the confusion his
name appearing in the bulletin as
killed.

" It is not worth the trouble of altera-
tion," said Berthierwhen he protested;

and, oddly enough, the mistake was
still further perpetuated after the Po-
lish campaig-n ; for certain squares and
streets of Paris being named after the
officers who fell at Jena, a Rue Doul-
lembourg came into existence, and
again the colonel protested.

" What ! " said Berthier, " would you
have me give back to the Emperor an
order so honorable to you? No; live
in the Rue Doullembourg and establish
your family there."

Napoleon returned to Jena for the
night, where he received the professors
of the university, and rewarded the
Saxon clergyman to whom he owed so
much ; and there he composed the Fifth
Bulletin, one of the most mendacious
of his productions. It is also recorded
that he crossed the battle-field and ad-
ministered brandy with his own hands
to many of the wounded.

CHAPTER XXIIl.

Brilliant Victories of Commodore Perry and General Jackson*

fe I HB famous battle fought by Com-
J I modore Perry on Lake Erie,
resulting in a victory for the
American Navy, ranks as one of the
great naval achievements of the Nine-
teenth Century. It had a decisive effect
upon the struggle with Great Britain,
then going on, and hastened the close
of» the second war with the mother
country.

Perry's celebrated battle was fought
September loth, 1813, and raised to a
high pitch the spirits of the Americans,
who were disheartened by repeated dis-
asters. The British had six ships, with
sixty- three guns. The Americans had
nine ships, with fifty-four guns, and the
American ships were much smaller
than the English. At this time Perry,
the American commander, was but
twenty-six years of age. His flagship
was the Lawrence. The ship's watch-
word was the last charge of the Chesa-
peake's dying commander — "Don't
give up the ship." The battle was
witnessed by thousands of people on
shore.

At first the advantage seemed to be
with the English. Perry's flagship was
riddled by English shot, her guns were
dismounted and the battle seemed lost.
At the supreme crisis Perry embarked
in a small boat with some of his officers,
and under the fire of many cannon
passed to the Niagara, another ship of
the fleet, of which he took command.

After he had left the Lawrence she
hauled down her flag and surrendered,
852

but the other American ships carried on
the battle with such fierce impetuosity
that the English battle-ship in turn sur-
rendered, the Lawrence was retaken and
all the English ships yielded with the
exception of one, which took flight.
The Americans pursued her, took her
and came back with the entire British
squadron. In the Capitol at Washing-
ton is a historical picture, a copy of
which is here inserted, showing Perry's
famous exploit in passing from one
ship to another under the fire of the
enemy.

The reader will be especially inter-
ested in obtaining a detailed account of
Perry's brilliant tactics in this famous
sea-fight.

Perry's squadron was lying at Put-
in-Bay on the morning of the loth of
September, when, at daylight, the ene-
my's ships were discovered at the
northwest from the masthead of the
Lawrence. A signal was immediately
made for all the vessels to get under
way. The wind was light at the south-
west, and there was no mode of obtain-
ing the weather-gauge of the enemy, a
very important measure with the pecu-
liar armament of the largest of the
American vessels, but by beating round
some small islands that lay in the way.

It being thought there was not suffi-
cient time for this, though the boats
were got ahead to tow, a signal was
about to be made for the vessels to ware,
and to pass to leeward of the islands,
with an intention of giving the enemy

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 358

this great advantage, when the wind
shifted to southeast. By this change
the American squadron was enabled to
pass in the desired direction, and to
gain the wind.

When he perceived the American
vessels clearing the land, or about lo
A. M., the enemy hove to, in a line,
with his ships' heads to the southward
and westward. At this time the two
squadrons were about three leagues
asunder, the breeze being still at south-
east, and sufficient to work with

Change of Plans.

After standing down until about a
league from the English, where a better
view was got of the manner in which
the enemy had formed his line, the
leading vessels of his own squadron be-
ing within hail. Captain Perry com-
municated a new order of attack. It
had been expected that the Queen Char-
lotte, the second of the English vessels,
in regard to force, would be at the head
of their line, and the Niagara had been
destined to lead in, and to lie against
her. Captain Perry having reserved for
himself a commander's privilege of en-
gaging the principal vessel of the oppos-
ing squadron ; but, it now appearing
that the anticipated arrangement had
not been made, the plan w. s promptly
altered.

Captain Barclay had formed his line
with the Chippeway, Mr. Campbell,
armed with one gun on a pivot, in the
van ; the Detroit, his own vessel, next ;
and the Hunter, Lieutenant Bignal ;
Queen Charlotte, Captain Finnis ; Lady
Prevost, Lieutenant Commandant Bu-
chan ; and the Little Belt astern, in the
order named. To oppose this line, the
Ariel, of four long twelves, was stationed
^3

in the van, and the Scorpion, of one
long and one short gun on circles, next
her. The Lawrence, Captain Perry,
came next ; the two schooners just men-
tioned keeping on her weather bow,
Laving no quarters. The Caledonia,
Lieutenant Turner, was the next astern,
and the Niagara, Captain Elliot, was
placed next to the Caledonia.

These vessels were all up at the time,
but the other light craft were more or
less distant, each endeavoring to get
into her berth. The order of battle
for the remaining vessels directed the
Tigress to fall in astern of the Niagara,
the Somers next, and then the Porcu-
pine and Trippe in the order named

Array of English Ships.

By this time the wind had got to be
very light, but the leading vessels were
all in their stations, and the remainder
were all endeavoring to get in as fast as
possible. The English vessels presented
a very gallant array, and their appear-
ance was beautiful and imposing. Their
line was compact, with the heads of the
vessels still to the southward and west-
ward ; their ensigns were just opening
to the air ; their vessels were freshly
painted, and their canvas 'was new and
perfect. The American line was more
straggling. The order of battle re-
quired them to form within half a
cable's length of each other, but the
schooners astern could not close with
the vessels ahead, which sailed faster,
and had more light canvas until some
considerable time had elapsed.

A few minutes before twelve, the De-
troit threw a twenty-four-poimd shot
at the Lawrence, then on her weather
quarter, distance between one and two
miles. Captain Perry now passed an

354 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON.

order by trumpet, througli the vessels
astern, for the line to close to the pre-
scribed order ; and soon after the Scor-
pion was hailed and directed to begin
with her long gun.

At this moment the American vessels
in line were edging down upon the
English, those in front being neces-
sarily nearer to the enemy than those
more astern, with the exception of the
Ariel and Scorpion, which two schooners
had been ordered to keep well to the
windward of the Lawrence.

Brisk Firing.

Ai. the Detroit had an armament of
long guns, Captain Barclay manifested
his judgment in commencing the action
in this manner ; and in a short time the
firing between that ship, the Lawrence,
and the two schooners at the head of
the American line got to be very ani-
mated. The Lawrence now showed a
signal for the squadron to close with
each vessel in her station, as previously
designated. A few minutes later the
vessels astern began to fire, and the
action became general, but distant.
The Lawrence, however, appeared to be
the principal aim of the enemy, and
before the firing had lasted any material
time the Detroit, Hunter and Queen
Charlotte were directing most of their
efforts against her.

The American brig endeavored to
close, and did succeed in getting with-
in reach of canister, though not without
suffering materially, as she fanned down
upon the enemy. At this time the
support of the two schooners ahead,
which were well commanded and fought,
was of the greatest moment to her; for
the vessels astern, though in the line,
could be of little use in diverting the

fire, on account of their positions and
the distance.

After the firing had lasted some time,
the Niagara hailed the Caledonia, and
directed the latter to make room for the
former to pass ahead. Mr. Turner put
his helm up in the most dashing man-
ner, and continued to near the enemy,
until he was closer to his line, perhaps,
than the commanding vessel; keeping
up as warm a fire as his small arma-
ment would allow. The Niagara now
became the vessel next astern of the
Lawrence.

The cannonade had the usual effect
of deadening the wind, and for two
hours there was very little air. During
all this time, the weight of the enemy's
fire was directed against the Lawrence ;
the Queen Charlotte having filled,
passed the Hunter and closed with the
Detroit, where she kept up a destruc-
tive cannonading on this devoted ves-
sel. These united attacks dismantled
the American brig, besides producing
great slaughter on board her.

Movements of Battleships.

At the end of two hours and a half,
agreeable to the report of Captain Perry,
the enemy having filled, and the wind
increasing, the two squadrons drew
slowly ahead, the Lawrence necessarily
falling astern and partially out of the
combat. At this moment the Niagara
passed to the southward and westward,
a short distance to windward of the
Lawrence, steering for the head of the
enemy's line, and the Caledonia fol-
lowed to leeward.

The vessels astern had not been idle,
but, by dint of sweeping and sailing,
they had all got within reach of their
guns, and had been gradually closing.

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 355

though not in the prescribed order.
The rear of the line would seem to have
inclined down towards the enemy,
bringing the Trippe, lyieutenant Hold-
up, so near the Caledonia, that the lat-
ter sent a boat to her for a supply of
cartridges.

Captain Perry, finding himself in a
vessel that had been rendered nearly
useless by the injuries she had received,
and which was dropping out of the
combat, got into his boat, and pulled
after the Niagara, on board of which
vessel he arrived at about half-past two.
Soon after the colors of the Lawrence
were hauled down, that vessel being
literally a wreck.

Gretting into Closer Action.

Lfter a short consultation between
Captains Perry and Elliott, the latter
volunteered to take the boat of the for-
mer, and to proceed and bring the small
vessels astern, which were already
briskly engaged, into still closer action.
This proposal being accepted, Captain
Elliott pulled down the line, passing
within hail of all the small vessels
astern, directing them to close within
half-pistol shot of the enemy, and to
throw in grape and canister, as soon as
they could get the desired positions.
He then repaired on board the Somers
and took charge of that schooner in
person.

When the enemy saw the colors of
the Lawrence come down, he confi-
dently believed that he had gained the
day. His men appeared over the bul-
warks of the different vessels and gave
three cheers. For a few minutes, in-
deed, there appears to have been, as if
by common consent, nearly a general
cessation in the firing, during which j

both parties were preparing for a des-
perate and final effort. The wind had
freshened and the position of the Niag-
ara, which brig was now abeam of the
leading English vessel, was command-
ing; while the gun-vessels astern, in
consequence of the increasing breeze,
were enabled to close very fast.

Rousing Cheers.

At forty-five minutes past two, or
when time had been given to the gun-
vessels to receive the order mentioned,
Captain Perry showed the signal from
the Niagara, for close action, and im-
mediately bore up, under his foresail,
topsails, and topgallantsail . As the
American vessels hoisted their answer-
ing flags, this order was received with
three cheers, and it was obeyed with
alacrity and spirit.

The enemy had attempted to ware
round, to get fresh broadsides to bear,
in doing which his line got into confu-
sion, and the two ships for a short time
were foul of each other, while the Lady
Prevost had so far shifted her berth, as
to be both to the westward and to the
leeward of the Detroit. At this critical
moment, the Niagara came steadily
down, within half pistol-shot of the
enemy, standing between the Chippe-
way and Lady Prevost, on one side, and
the Detroit, Queen Charlotte and Hun-
ter on the other. In passing she poured
in her broadsides, starboard and lar-
board, ranging ahead of the ships,
luffed athwart their bows, and continued
delivering a close and deadly fire.

The shrieks from the Detroit, pro-
claimed that the tide of battle had
turned. At the same moment, the gun-
vessels and Caledonia were throwing in
close discharges of grape and canister

J

PERRY PASSING IN AN OPEN BOAT THROUGH THE THICK OF THE FIGHT.

356

VICTORIES OB COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON.

357

astern. A conflict so fearfully close,
and so deadly, was necessarily short.
In fifteen or twenty minutes after the
Niagara bore up, a hail was passed
among the small vessels, to say that the
enemy had struck, and an officer of the
Queen Charlotte appeared on the taflf-
rail of that ship, waving a white hand-
kerchief, tied to a boarding-pike.

Trying to Escape.

As soon as the smoke cleared away
the two squadrons were found partly
intermingled. The Niagara lay w
leeward of the Detroit, Queen Charlotte
and Hunter ; and the Caledonia, with
one or two of the gun-vessels, was
between the latter and the Lady Pre-
vost. On board the Niagara the signal
for close action was still abroad, while
the small vessels were sternly wearing
their answering flags. The Little Belt
and Chippeway were endeavoring to es-
cape to leeward, but they were shortly
after brought-to by the Scorpion and
Trippe ; while the Lawrence was lying
astern and to windward, with the Ameri-
can colors again flying. The battle had
commenced about noon, and it termin-
ated at three, with the exception of a
few shots fired at the two vessels that
attempted to escape, which v/ere not
overtaken until an hour later.

In this decisive action, so far as their
people were concerned, the two squad-
rons suffered in nearly an equal degree,
the manner in which the Lawrence was
cut up being almost without an example
in naval warfare. It is understood that
when Captain Perry left her she had
but one gun on her starboard side, or
that on which she was engaged, which
could be used ; and that gallant officer
is said to have aided in firing it

in person the last time it was dis-
charged.

Of her crew, 22 were killed and 6r
were wounded, most of the latter se-
verely. When Captain Perry left her,
taking with him his own brother and
six of his people, there remained on
board but 14 sound men. The Niagara
had 2 killed and 25 wounded ; or about
one-fourth of all at quarters. This was
the official report ; but, according to
the statement of the surgeon, her loss
Tras 5 killed and 27 wounded.

Total Loss.

The other vessels suffered relative] f>
less. The total loss of the squadron
was 27 killed and 96 wounded, or alto-
gether, 123 men; of whom 12 were
quarter-deck officers. More than a
hundred men were unfit for duty
among the different vessels, previous tc
the action, cholera morbus and dysen-
tery prevailing in the squadron. Cap
tain Perry himself was laboring under
debility, from a recent attack of the
lake fever, and could hardly be said to
be in proper condition for service when
he met the enemy ; a circumstance that
greatly enhances the estimate of his
personal exertions on this memorable
occasion.

For two hours the weight of the
enemy's fire had been thrown into the
Lawrence, and the water being per'
fectly smooth his long guns had com-
mitted great havoc, before the carron-
ades of the American vessels could be
made available. For much of this
period it is believed that the efforts of
the enemy were little diverted, except
by the fire of the two leading schooners,
a gun of one of which (the Ariel) had
early bursted, the two long guns of the

358

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL [ACKSON.

large brigs, and the two long guns of
the Caledonia.

Although the enemy undoubtedly
suffered by this fire, it was not directed
at a single object, as was the case with
that of the English, who appeared to
think that by destroying the American
commanding vessel they would con-
quer. It is true that carronades were
used on both sides, at an earlier stage of
the action than that mentioned, but
there is good reason for thinking that
they did but little execution for the
first hour. When they did tell, the
Lawrence — the vessel nearest to the
enemy, if the Caledonia be excepted —
necessarily became their object, and, by
this time, the efficiency of her own bat-
tery was much lessened.

Shot Passed Through.

As a consequence of these peculiar
circumstances, her starboard bulwarks
were nearly beaten in, and even her
larboard were greatly injured, many of
the enemy's heavy shot passing through
both sides, while every gun was finally
disabled in the batteries fought. Al-
though much had been justly said of
the manner in which the Bon Homme
Richard and the Essex were injured,
neither of those suffered, relatively, in
a degree proportioned to the Lawrence.

Distinguished as were the two former
vessels for the indomitable resolution
with which they withstood the destruc-
tive fire directed against them, it did
not surpass that manifested on board
the latter ; and it ought to be mentioned
that throughout the whole of this try-
ing day her people, who had been so
short a time acting together, manifested
a steadiness and a discipline worthy of
veterans.

Although the Niagara suffered in a
much less degrees, 27 men killed and
wounded, in a ship's company that
mustered little more than 100 souls at
quarters, under ordinary circumstances
would be thought a large proportion.
Neither the Niagara nor any of the
smaller vessels were injured in an un-
usual manner in their hulls, spars and
sails, the enemy having expended so
much of his efforts against the Law-
rence, and being so soon silenced when
that brig and the gun-vessels got their
ranking positions at the close of the
conflict.

#

Heavy Casualties.

The injuries sustained by the English
were more divided, but were necessarily
great. According to the official report
of Captain Barclay, his vessels lost 41
killed and 94 wounded, making a total
of 135, including twelve officers, the
precise number lost by the Americans.
No report has been published in which
the loss of the respective vessels was
given ; but the Detroit had her first
lieutenant killed, and her commander,
Captain Barclay, with her purser,
wounded. Captain Finnis, of the Queen
Charlotte, was also slain, and her first
lieutenant was wounded.

The commanding officer and first
lieutenant of the Lady Prevost were
among the wounded, as were the com-
manding officers of the Hunter and
Chippeway. All the vessels were a
good deal injured in their sails and
hulls; the Queen Charlotte suffering
most in proportion. Both the Detroit
and Queen Charlotte rolled the masts
out of them, at anchor at Put-in-Bay,
in a gale of wind, two days after the
action.

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON.

359

It is not easy to make a just compari-
son between the forces of the hostile
squadrons on this occasion. In certain
situations the Americans would have
been materially superior, while in others
the enemy might possess the advantage
in perhaps an equal degree. In the cir-
cumstances under which the action was
actually fought, the peculiar advant-
ages and disadvantages were nearly
equalized, the lightness of the wind
preventing either of the two largest of
the American vessels from profiting by
its peculiar mode of efficiency, until
quite near the close of the engagement,
and particularly favoring the armament
of the Detroit ; while the smoothness
of the water rendered the light vessels
of the Americans very destructive as
soon as they could be got "vithin a
proper range.

Long Guns in Action.

The Detroit has been represented on
good authority, to have been both a
heavier and stronger ship than either
of the American brigs, and the Queen
Charlotte proved to be a much finer
vessel than had been expected; while
the Lady Prevost was found to be a
large, warlike schooner. It was, per-
haps, unfortunate for the enemy, that
the armaments of the two last were not
available under the circumstances which
rendered the Detroit so efficient, as it
destroyed the unity of his efforts.

In short, the battle for near half of
its duration appears to have been fought,
so far as efficiency was concerned, by
the long guns of the two squadrons.
This was particularly favorable to the
Detroit and to the American gun-ves-
sels ; while the latter fought under the
advantages of smooth water and the

disadvantages of having uo quarters.
The sides of the Detroit, which were
unusually stout, were filled with shot
that did not penetrate.

Brave Officers.

Captain Perry, in his report of the
action, eulogized the conduct of his
second in command, Captain Elliott ;
that of Mr. Turner, who commanded
the Caledonia ; and that of the officers
of his own vessel. He also commended
the officers of the Niagara, Mr. Packett
of the Ariel, and Mr. Champlin of the
Scorpion. It is now believed that the
omission of the names of the com-
manders of the gun-vessels astern, was
accidental. It would seem that these
vessels, in general, were conducted with
great gallantry.

Towards the close of i-iie action,
indeed, the Caledonia, and some of the
gun-vessels, would appear to have been
handled with a boldness, considering
their total want of quarters, bordering
on temerity. They are known to have
been within hail of the enemy, at the
moment he struck, and to have been
hailed by him. The grape and canister
thrown by the Niagara and the schoon-
ers, during the last ten minutes of the
battle, and which missed the enemy,
rattled through the spars of the friendly
vessels, as they lay opposite to each
other, raking the English ahead and
astern.

Captain Perry was criticised at the
time for the manner in which he had
brought his squadron into action, it
being thought he should have waited
until his line was more compactly
formed, and his small vessels could
have closed. It has been said that "an
officer seldom went into action worse,

560

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAI, JACKSO^i.

or got out of it better." Truth is too
often made the sacrifice of antithesis.
The mode of attack appears to have
been deemed by the enemy judicious,
an opinion that speaks in its favor.
The lightness of the wind, in edging
down, was the only circumstance that
was particularly adverse to the Ameri-
can vessels, but its total failure could
not have been readily foreseen.

Clever Tactics.

The shortness of the distances on the
lake rendered escape so easy, when an
officer was disposed to avoid a battle,
that no commander, who desired an
action, would have been pardonable
for permitting a delay on such a plea.
The line of battle was highly judicious,
the manner in which the Lawrence was
supported by the Ariel and Scorpion
being simple and ingenious.

By steering for the head of the ene-
my's line the latter was prevented from
gaining the wind by tacking, and when
Captain Elliott imitated this manoeuvre
in the Niagara, the American squadron
had a very commanding position, of
which Captain Perry promptly availed
himself. In a word, the American
commander appears to have laid his
plan with skill and judgment, and in
all in which it was frustrated it would
seem to have been the effect of accident.
His end was fully obtained and resulted
in a triumph.

The British vessels appear to have
been gallantly fought, and were sur-
Tendered only when the battle was
hopelessly lost. The fall of their differ-
ent commanders was materially against
them, though it is not probable the day
could have been recovered after the
Niagara gained the head of their line

and the gun vessels had closed. If tm
enemy made an error it was in not
tacking when he attempted to ware,
but it is quite probable that the condi-
tion of his vessels did not admit of the
former manoeuvre.

There was an instant when the enemy
believed himself the conqueror, and a
few minutes even, when the Americans
doubted ; but the latter never despaired ;
a moment sufficed to change their feel-
ings, teaching the successful the fickle-
ness of fortune, and admonishing the
depressed of the virtue of perseverance.

For his conduct in this battle, Cap-
tain Perry received a gold medal from
Congress. Captain Elliott also re-
ceived a gold medal. Rewards were
bestowed on the officers and men gen-
erally, and the nation has long consid-
ered thi^ ' action one of its proudest
achievements on the water.

Grlory for Our Navy.

It is not too much to say that this
renowned victory on Lake Erie has
done more than any other one event to
give that high prestige to the Americaa
Navy which has been accorded to it for
so long a time. Every great sea battle
must be fought, not merely with guns
and powder, but with brains. There
must be planning, strategy, manoeu-
vring, sometimes swift and complicatedj
and all th:3 is the work of the head.
Next comes the bravery, the fiery dash,
that turns the onset into victory.

It is not a little remarkable that the
American nation, which, so far as com-
merce is concerned, has never claimed
to be mistress of the seas, should have
had a navy whose exploits from first to
last have been the surprise and wonder
of the world.

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON.

361

During the year following the great
battle of Lake Erie was fought one of
the most important land and naval bat-
tles of the century.

At the western end of Jamaica is
Negril Bay, a wide, safe and convenient
anchorage. There, on the 24tli of No-
vember, 1 8 14, was assembled one of
the most imposing and ejEficient com-
bined naval and military forces that
Great Britain has ever sent across the
Atlantic. More than fifty ships were
there, most of them men-of-war, and
the remainder transports. The men-
of-war included many vessels of the
largest size, and their commanders
numbered amongst them the most re-
nowned and trusted English officers.

Renowned Commanders.

Sir Alexander Cochrane' s flag was
Loisted on the 80-gun Tonnant, and he
had with him Rear-Admiral Malcolm
in the 74, Royal Oak. Sir Thomas Hardy
— Nelson's Hardy — was in the Ramilis,
and Sir Thomas Trobridge was in the Ar-
mide. Many others there were, scarcely
less well known to fame and fresh from
the great deeds which had given to
England the undisputed sovereignty of
the seas. The decks of the fleet were
crowded with soldiers. The 4th, 44th,
85th, and the 21st Regiments, with a
proportion of artillery and sappers, had
come from North America, where they
had fought the battle of Bladensburg,
burned the public buildings of Wash-
ington, and lost in action their general
— the gallant Ross — during the past
summer.

These had just been joined by the
93rd Highlanders, six companies of
the 95th Rifles, two West India Regi-
ments, two squadrons of the 14th Dra-

goons (dismounted), with detachments
of artillery and engineers, and recruits
for the regiments which had been al-
ready campaigning in America. The
whole probably formed an army of
about 6,000 men, though of them i ■
could not be said that above 4,400 were
troops on which a general could thor
oughly depend, as the two West India
Regiments, being composed of negroes,
were not completely trustworthy, par-
ticularly if they were to be called upon
to <^ndure much exposure to cold in
coming service.

Formidable Fleet.

Thiir leader was Major-General
Keane, a young and dashing officer,
who had been sent out from England
to be second in command to General
Ross, and who did not know till he
reached Madeira on his voyage that,
by Ross's lamented death, he had no
senior. Other forces were also on their
way, which would eventually join the
great armament now in Negril Bay. A
fleet from Bordeaux was still on the
ocean, the naval squadron of Captain
Percy was to effect a junction from Pen-
sacola, and more ships were to come
from England conveying a commander-
in-chief

The object with which so much war-
like power had been collected had long
been studiously kept secret, but at last
it was known that a descent on Ivouis-
iana was intended, and that the first
operation would be the capture of New
Orleans. It was thought that the Gov- '
ernment of the United States would be
taken by surprise, that little or no re-
sistance would be met with, and that
the charges of the expedition would be
more than covered by the large booty

362 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON.

in cotton, sugar and other products
which had not been able to leave the
country during the course of the war
while the seas were watched by English
cruisers.

There was no longer delay at the
place of rendezvous, and the great fleet
got under weigh on the 26th November.
Confidence was in every heart, and no
forebodings of disaster clouded the an-
ticipations of success which, as by sec-
ond nature, came to soldiers and sailors
accustomed to victory.

Loyalty was Doubtfai.

New Orleans is built on the east
bank of the Mississippi, the "father of
waters," about eighty miles from its
mouth. In 1814 its inhabitants num-
bered from 20,000 to 30,000, of whom
the majority were French Creoles, while
the remainder were Spaniards and
Americans, besides a floating multitude
of merchants, sailors and others who
had been detained in the city and de-
barred from their usual avocations by
the war. It was doubtful whether this
population was loyal to the American
Republic, of which it had only for a
few years formed a part, and, indeed, if
the defense of the town had fallen into
less vigorous hands than it did, it is
more than likely that serious disaffec-
tion might have showed itself.

The mighty flood of the Mississippi,
bearing down with it a vast accumula-
tion of detritus, had formed a great
delta, and the waters themselves found
their way to the Gulf of Mexico
through many channels. Its main out-
let was, however, the only one naviga-
ble for ships of any size, and this had
at its mouth a constantly shifting bar,
which was impassable for any craft

drawing over sixteen or seventeen feet
of water. Besides the natural difficul-
ties of the entrance to the river, it was
further defended by a fort, strong in it-
self and almost impregnable by its posi-
tion in the midst of impervious swamps.
Even supposing that an enemy should
be able to pass the bar and the first fort,
he would find that when he had as-
cended the river about sixty miles two
other strong forts presented themselves,
whose cross fire swept the channel, at
a point, too, where the river makes a
bend, and the sailing ships of the dav
had to wait for a change of wind t
ensure their further progress.

No Place for Landing.

The banks of the river were composed
of slimy morasses, rank with semi-tro-
pical vegetation and intersected by
bayous, or creeks, utterly impracticable
for landing or for the march and man-
oeuvring of troops. To the east of the
swampy delta formed by the great river,
a shallow sheet of open water stretched
inland from the Gulf of Mexico, and
was only divided from the Mississippi
at its further extremity by a narrow
neck of comparatively firm land, and on
this neck was situated the town of New
Orleans. The open water near the
gulf was known as Lake Borgne, and,
where it widened out eastward of the
city, as Lake Pontchartrain.

The entire width of the neck of land
between Lake Pontchartrain and the
river might vary from eight to ten
miles, but of this about two-thirds was
reed-grown morass, while the remainder
was occupied by cotton and sugar plan-
tations, separated by strong railings
and drained by numerous deep ditches
or canals. The whole at certain seasons

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 363

oi the year was below the level of the
river, and was protected from inunda-
tion by high artificial dykes, or ram-
parts, called in L/Ouisiana levees.

"Old Hickory,"

When the designs of the British ar-
mament became apparent, Major-Gen-
eral Jackson, of the Unite States army,
an officer who had greatly distinguished
himseli in Indian wars, was entrusted
with supreme command at the threat-
ened point, and arrived at New Orleans
on the 2d of December. As a man who
made his mark in history, and who
served his country well at a great crisis
in her fortunes, his personal description
is of peculiar interest: — " A tall, gaunt
man, of very erect carriage, with a
countenance full of stern decision and
fearless energy, but furrowed with care
and anxiety. His complexion was sal-
low and unhealthy, his hair was iron
grey, and his body thin and emaciated,
like that of one who had just recovered
from a lingering and painful illness.
But the fierce glare of his bright and
hawk-like eye betrayed a soul and spirit
which triumphed over all the infirmi-
ties of the body. His dress was simple
and nearly threadbare. A small leather
cap protected his head, and a short
Spanish blue cloak his body, whilst his
feet and legs were encased in high dra-
goon boots, long ignorant of polish or
blacking, which reached to the knees.
In age he appeared to have passed about
forty-five winters."

Immediately on his arrival at New
Orleans, General Jackson began making
every arrangement for the defence of
the town, inspecting and improving
the river forts, reconnoitring the shores
of Lake Borgne and Lake Pontchar-

train, fortifying and obstructing the
bayous which gave a waterway to the
near neighborhood of the town, and
stimulating and encouraging the peo-
ple. In truth he had apparently no
easy task before him.

We have seen how mighty was the
force arrayed against him, which was
even now lying off the coast ready to
advance in a wave of invasion. To
oppose it he had at his immediate dis-
posal only two newly-raised regiments
of regular troops, a battalion of uni-
formed volunteers, two badly equipped
and imperfectly-disciplined regiments
of State militia — some of whose pri-
vates were armed with rifles, some with
muskets, some with flowling-pieces,
some not armed at all — and a battalion
of free men of color, the whole amount-
ing to between 2,000 and 3,000 fighting-
men. Two small vessels of war lay in
the river, but these were, so far, un-
manned. There were also six gun-
boats on Lake Pontchartrain. Commo-
dore Patterson was the senior naval
officer, and he had few subordinates.

Hurrying to the Rescue.
Reinforcemencs were, however, on
their way, and were strenuously push-
ing forward in defiance of the incle-
ment season, swollen streams, nearly
impassable roads, and scant supply of
food and forage. General Coffee, with
nearly 3,000 men, was coming from
Pensacola. General Carroll was bring-
ing a volunteer force from Tennessee,
and Generals Thomas and Adair, at the
head of 2,000 Kentuckians, were also
on their way down the Mississippi to
join in the defence of Kentucky's sister
State. Such an army as — even when
all should be assembled — General Jack-

364

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERA^ jACKSON.

son was to command would, to all seem-
ing, have little chance in a ranged field
against the highly-disciplined soldiery
of England; but it had, for its greatest
and most reliable advantage, the occu-
pation of a position in the highest de-
gree dilBficult of approach, and, when
reached, capable by its nature of effec-
tual resistance.

Fleet All There.

On December 8th the leading ships
of the English fleet, which had left Ne-
gril Bay on November 26th, anchored
off the Chandeleur Islands, which stud
the gulf opposite to the entrance of
Lake Borgne; and by the 12th the
whole of the men-of-war and troopships
had arrived. It had been recognized
that to advance against New Orleans
by the channel of the Mississippi was
a task too difiicult to be attempted,
and Sir Alexander Cochrane and Gen-
eral Keane had determined to effect a
landing on the shore of Lake Pont-
chartrain, and hoped, by pushing on at
once, to be able to take possession of
the town before effectual preparation
could be made for its defence.

It has been said that Lake Borgne
and Lake Pontchartrain were shallow;
indeed, their depth varied from six to
twelve feet. The troops were, there-
fore, transferred from the larger into
the lighter vessels, and on the 13th
were prepared to enter upon the transit
of the land-locked waters. They had
not proceeded far, however, when it be-
came apparent that the American gun-
boats which occupied the lake were
prepared to offer resistance to the move-
ment, andj until that resistance could
be removed, no disembarkation cot' Id
be attempted

The gunboats, with their light
draught of water, could bid defiance to
even the lightest vessels of the English
fleet, which could not float where they
sailed- They could only be reached
by ship's launches and barges rowed by
seamen, and a flotilla combined under
Captain Luckier of the Navy was at
once prepared for the enterprise. The
boats pushed off, and by noon came in
sight of the foe, who would willingly
have retreated and given their attackers
long and weary toil in their approach,
but that, the morning breeze having
died away, they were compelled per-
force to fight at anchor in line moored
fore and aft. Captain Lockier resolved
to refresh his men before he commenced
the action, and dropping his grapnels
just out of reach of the enemy's guns,
allowed his crews to eat their dinner.

Brilliant Fighting.

After an hour's repose the boats again
got ready to advance, and, with a hearty
cheer, they moved steadily in a long
line. Then began one of those brilliant
boat actions in which some of the best
qualities of the English sailors so often
showed themselves. The American
guns opened, and a hail of balls was
showered on Captain Lockier' s flotilla.
One or two boats were sunk, others
disabled, and many men were killed
and wounded. But the English car-
ronades returned the fier, and, as the
determined, stalwart rowers gradually
closed with the Americans, the marines
were able to open a deadly discharge
of musketry.

A last powerful effort, the gunboats
were reached, and, cutlass in hand, the
bluejackets sprang up their sides. The
resistance was stern and unyielding

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAX* JACKSON.

Z6t>

worthy of the American Republic.
Captain lyockier received several severe
wounds, but, fighting from stem to
stern, the boarders at length overpow-
ered their enemy, the " Stars and
Stripes" was hauled down, and on
every vessel the English flag was ho^'st-
ed in its place.

A Rough Journey.

On the waterway of the lakes there
was now no longer any resistance, and
again the light vessels, to which the
troops had been transferred, essayed to
pass over it. But the depth beneath
the keels became less and less, and even
the lightest craft one after another stuck
fast. The boats were of necessity
hoist id out, and the soldiers, packed
tigh'dy in them, cramped in one posi-
tion, began a miserable transit of thirty
irlles to Pine Island — a barren spot
vvhere all were to be concentrated be-
fore further operations were attempted.

No boat, heavily laden as all were,
could cover the long distance in less
than ten hours, and, besides the discom-
fort to the men, inseparable from such
long confinement, matters were made
infinitely worse by a change in the
weather. A heavy rain began, to which
a cloak formed no protection, and such
as is only seen in semi-tropical coun-
tries.

The operation began on the i6th,
and, with all the diligence and con-
tinued exertion of which officers and
men, soldiers and sailors, were capable,
it was not finished until the 2ist. By
day and night for these days boats were
being pulled from the fleet to the island
and from the island to the fleet. The
strain upon the sailors was terrific, and
*^any of them were almost without ces-

sation at the oar. Not only had they
to support hunger, fatigue and sleepless
nights, but the constant changes of
temperature aggravated the hardships.
Drenching rain by day alternated with
severe frosts by night, and tried to the
uttermost the endurance of all. Nor
was the army, as it landed in successive
detachments on Pine Island, in a better
plight. Bivouacked on a barren, swampy
spot, which did not even produce fuel
for camp fires, the clothes which had
been saturated with rain by day and
congealed into hard and deadly chilling
husks by night, with no supply of food
but salt meat, biscuit, and a little rum
provided from the fleet, soldiers have
seldom been exposed to more severe
trials of their fortitude.

British Fortitude.

But, in spite of all, no complaints or
murmurings rose from the expedition.
The miseries of the present were for-
gotten in the high hopes of the imme-
diate future, and this confidence did
not arise alone from trust in their own
strength, but deserters from the enemy
related the alarm that existed in New
Orleans, assured the invaders that not
more than 5,000 men were in arms
against them, that many of the city's
inhabitants were ready to join them
when they appeared, and that conquest,
speedy and bloodless, was within their
grasp.

Meanwhile, in New Orlean ; itself.
General Jackson had been meeting
difficulties, working to restore confi-|
dence, and providing for the necessities
of the military situation with all the
energy of his nature. The news of the
disaster to the American gunboats had
filled the people with alarm. Rumors

see

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE tERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON.

of treason began to spread, an insur-
rection of the slaves was dreaded, the
armed ships in the river were still un-
manned, and the expected reinforce-
ments had not arrived. A desperate
situation demanded the strongest and
most unusual measures. Jackson did
not hesitate to adopt them, and assumed
the great responsibility of proclaiming
martial law, so that he could wield the
whole resources of the town, and direct
them unimpaired by faction against his
foe.

Expresses were sent to the approach-
ing additions to his strength, urging
them to increase their efforts to push
forward. The two war vessels — the
Carolina and Louisiana — whose possi-
ble importance as factors in the ap-
proaching struggle was recognized,
were manned and prepared for service ;
and even a lawless semi-piraticai band
of smugglers was forgiven its crime,
taken into the service of the Republic,
and organized into two companies of
artillerymen. So great, however, was
the lack of war munitions that even
the flints of these privateers' pistols were
received from them as a precious prize,
and were forthwith fitted to muskets.

Oompleting Preparations.

The whole of the English field army
was assembled on Pine Island on the
2 1st of December, but having been so
long on board ship, and its various
corps having been gathered from many
different points, it became necessary,
before further advance was made, to
form it in brigades, to allot to each
brigade a proportion of departmental
staff— such as commissaries, medical
attendants, etc. — and to establish depots
of provisions and military stores.

In completing these arrangements
the whole of the 22d was passed, and it
was not till the morning of the 23d
that General Keane's advanced guard
could start for its descent on the main-
land. This advanced guard was made
up of the 4th, the 85th Light Infantry,
and the six companies of the 95th
Rifles. To it were attached a party of
rocket-men and two light three-pounder
field-pieces. The whole was under the
command of Colonel Thornton, 85th.

Short of Transports.

The main body of the force was di-
vided into two brigades — the first com-
posed of the 2 1st, 44th, and one West
India regiment, with a proportion of
artillery and rockets, under Colonel
Brook ; and the second, containing the
93d and the other West India regiment,
under Colonel Hamilton, also provided
with rockets and field-guns. The dis-
mounted dragoons remained as a per-
sonal bodyguard to the general until
they could be provided with horses.

It was intended that the descent of
the army on the mainland should take
place on the bank of the Bayou Bienvenu
—a long creek which ran up from Lake
Pontchartrain to within a short distance
of New Orleans through an extensive
morass. Every boat that could be sent
from the fleet was to be used for the
service, but not more could be provided
than were sufficient to transport a third
of the army at one time.

The undertaking was therefore most
hazardous, as, if the troops were placed
in proximity to the enemy in successive
divisions at long intervals of time, each
might be cut to pieces in detail. Neither
leaders nor rank and file were, however,
men to be deterred even by excessive

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAI, JACKSON.

367

risks, and, as has been said, they had
the assurance of deserters that great
resistance was not to be anticipated.
Colonel Thornton's advanced guard
was therefore embarked. Many miles
had to be traversed, and again the sol-
diers were exposed to long hours of
confinement in a cramped position ;
again the heavy rain of the day was
succeeded at sundown by a bitter
frost.

Nor could they proceed after dark
had set in, and, during the long weary
hours of night, the boats lay in silence
off their landing-place. By nine o'clock
on the following morning, however, the
landing was effected, and with limbs
stiffened and almost powerless, with
little available food to restore exhausted
strength, i, 600 men stood at last upon
the enemy's shore.

In a Wilderness.
Wild and savage was the scene where
the little band found itself. A scarcely
distinguishable track followed the bank
of the bayou. On either side was one
huge marsh, covered with tall reeds.
No house or vestige of human life was
to be seen, and but few trees broke the
monotony of the dreary waste. For-
bidding as was the spot, and ill-adapted
for defence in case of attack, it might
have possibly been supposed that Gen-
eral Keane, who accompanied the ad-
vanced guard, would have here re-
mained in concealment till the boats,
which had returned to Pine Island, had
brought the remainder of his force ;
but he judged it best to push on into
more open country, influenced by the
hope of striking a swift and unexpected
blow, and by his fairly well-founded
doubts whether even now his enemy's

scouts might not now be hovering round
him.

The advance was formed, and, after
several hours' march, delayed by the
difficulties of the marshy road, by the
numerous streams and ditches that had
to be crossed, and by the fetid miasma
that filled the air, the track began to
issue from the morass, there were wider
and wider spots of firm ground, and
some groves of orange trees presented
themselves.

The Advance Discovered.

It was evident that human habitations
must be near, and increased caution
and regularity became necessary. At
last two or three farm houses appeared.
The advanced companies rushed for-
ward at the double and surrounded
them, securing the inmates as prisoners.
There was a moment of carelessness,
however, and one man contrived to
effect his escape. Now all further hope
of secrecy had to be abandoned. Gen-
eral Keane knew that the rumor of his
landing would spread with lightning
speed, and all that was left to him was
to act with determination, and make
the appearance of his force as formid-
able as possible.

The order of march was re-formed so
that, moving upon a wide front, the
three battalions had the semblance of
twice their real strength, and the pace
was quickened in order to gain a
good military position before an enemy's
force could show itself Onward they
pressed, till they found themselves close
to the bank of the mighty Mississippi
and wheeling to the right, they were on
the main road leading to New Orleans.

They faced towards the city on a
narrow plain, about a mile in width.

368 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAI. JACKSON.

with the river on their left, nid the
marsh which they had quitted on their
right. A spot of comparative safety
had been reached, the little column
halted, piled arms, and its bivouac was
formed. It was late in the afternoon
before the moment of repose came, but
the soldiers prepared to make the most
of it; outposts were placed to secure
them from surprise, foraging parties
collected food, and fires were lighted.

The evening passed with one slight
alarm, caused by a few horsemen who
hovered near the pickets, and darkness
began to set in. In the twilight a
vessel was seen dropping down the cur-
rent, and roused curiosity among those
who had not stretched themselves by
the fires to seek much-needed sleep. It
was thought that she might be an Eng-
lish ship, which had managed to pass
the forts at the mouth of the river.
She showed no colors, but leasurely
and silently she dropped her anchor
abreast of the camp and furled her sails*
To satisfy doubt she was repeatedly
hailed, but no answer was returned.
A feeling of uneasiness began to spread,
and several musket shots were fired at
her, but still reply came not from her
dimly-seen bulk.

Roar of Guns.

Suddenly she swung her broadside
toward the bank, and a commanding
voice was heard to cry, "Give them
this for the honor of America.-' The
words were instantly followed by the
flash and roar of guns, and a deadly
shower of grape swept through the
English bivouac. The light artillery
which had accompanied General
Keane's advance guard was helpless
against so powerful an adversary, and

nothing could be done but to withdraw
the exposed force behind the shelter of
the high levee. The fires were left
burning, and, in the pitch-dark night,
those who were uninjured were forced
to cower low while the continued storm
of grape whistled over their heads, and
they could hear the shrieks and groans
of their wretched comrades who had
been wounded by the first discharge.

Blaze of Musketry.

Thus they lay for more than an hour,
when a spatting fire of musketry was
heard from the pickets which had been
able to hold their position. Whether
this fire was only the sign of slight
skirmishing at the outposts, or whether
it foreboded a serious attack, was for
some minutes doubtful, but a fierce yell
of exultation was heard, the blackness
of night was lighted by a blaze of mus-
ketry fire breaking out in semi-circle
in front of the position, and the cer-
tainty came that the enemy were upon
the advance guard in overpowering
numbers.

The situation seemed almost des-
perate. Retreat was impossible, and
the only alternatives were co surrender
or to beat back the assailants. General
Keane and his followers were not the
men to surrender, and at once assumed
the bolder course. The 85th and 95th
moved rapidly to support the pickets,
while the 4th were formed as a reserve
in the rear of the encampment. In the
struggle that followed there was no
opening for tactics, none for the super-
vision and direction of a general, or
even of the colonels of battalions.

The darkness was so intense that all
order, all discipline were lost. Each
man hurled himself direct at the flashes

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON.

369

jf musketry ; if twenty or thirty united
for a moment under an ofl&cer, it was
only to plunge into the enemy's ranks
and to engage in a hand-to-hand con-
flict, bayonet against bayonet, sword
against sword. In the dire confusion
of the bloody melee it soon became im-
possible to distinguish friend from foe.

Americans Give Way.

The British field-artillery dared not
fire for fear of sweeping away Ameri-
cans and Englishmen by the same dis-
charge. Prisoners were taken on both
sides, and often released at once by the
sudden rush of assistance. As both
armies spoke the same tongue a chal-
lenge was or no avail, and till the
deadly thrust or shot came no man
could be certain who stood in front of
Vim.

In the nature of Aings such fighting
could not be of long continuance. The
Americans, astonished by the vigor of
the assault, gave way, and were fol-
lowed up for some distance ; but the
English officers strove to rally their
men, and to make them fall back to
their first position; and soon all but
those who had fallen were re-formed
and concentrated. The Americans had
been repulsed on all sides, but the fight
had cost the English dearly, as, includ-
ing the loss from the fire of the ship,
46 were killed and 167 wounded, be-
sides 64 taken prisoners.

The miserable night wore on, but
with the morning's dawn there came a
renewal of the inglorious peril. The
schooner whose fire had been so dis-
astrous on the preceding evening still
lay off in the river, and had now been
joined by another vessel. They were
the Carolina and Louisiana- Safe from
24

any retaliation, their guns covered the
shore and effectually precluded any
movement of the English, who were
obliged — hungry, cold and wearied — to
seek shelter under the levee from the
shower of projectiles which swept the
plain.

But meanwhile the rest of the army
was landing, andhasteningto join their
comrades. The roar of the cannon had
been heard far over the waters of Lake
Pontchartrain, and had added energy
to the strong arms that were pulling
the boats. By nightfall on the 23rd the
two brigades had both arrived on the
scene of battle, and had taken up their
ground between the morass and the
river, but throwing back their left, so
as to avoid the fire of the ships.

The Brave Defenders.

The advanced guard could at last be
extricated from the trap into which it
had fallen, and the night of the 24th
was passed in quiet and in disheartened
speculation whether the advance could
be resumed or not. The responsibility
of decision was, however, removed from
General Keane by the unexpected ar-
rival on the morning of the 25th of Sir
Edward Pakenham and General Gibbs,
who had been sent from England as
first and second in command.

Let us see what had been the course
of affairs in New Orleans while the
events just related were occurring. At
the time that the English army was
concentrating at Pine Island the de-
fence of the city still depended alone
on the small, half-organized force which
General Jackson had found under his
hand on his first arrival. But on the
2 1st the long-expected reinforcements
began to pour in. General Coffee — the

3T0

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON.

numbers of his following terribly re-
duced by the toils of an unprecedentedly
rapid march — came at the head of
mounted Tennessee sharpshooters, hun-
ters and pioneers from their youth.
Colonel Hinds brought the Mississippi
Dragoons. On the 2 2d General Car-
roll's flotilla arrived with a further
body of Tennesseeans, and, what was
almost moie important, a supply of
muskets.

Costly Delay.

The different corps were not yet,
however, actually united in one body,
and when the sudden report came that
General Keane had actually landed,
there was no military cohesion among
them. If the English advanced guard
had pushed at once on the city, instead
of bivouacking during the afternoon of
the 23d, they might possibly have en-
countered no combined resistance, and
have overthrown the Americans in de-
tachments. But Keane' s halt, however
much it may possibly be justified, gave
Jackscn the opportunity he required,
and enabled him to put all his men in
line. The Carolina and Louisiana were
sent down the river, with what result
we have seen. The land troops were
hurried to meet the enemy in the field,
and the bitter struggle on the night of
the 23d took place.

When Sir Edward Pakenham took
over the command of the English army
he found himself in as unsatisfactory a
position as could well fall to the lot of
any general. He found himself com-
mitted to a course of action which he
had not initiated, and of which possibly
he did not approve. He found his force
in a cramped position, which offered no
scope for the operations of highly trained

and disciplined soldiers, and he learned
that its advanced guard had sufiered, if
not a defeat, at least a very serious
check. If the end of the campaign was
failure, he certainly should not be laden
with all the blame. Carefully he re-
connoitred the situation, and carefully
he considered the state of affairs.

It was evident that no advance could
be made as long as the Carolina and
Louisiana were able to pour forth tlieir
murderous fire, and the night of the
25th was employed in erecting on the
levee batteries armed with heavy ship-
guns sent from the fleet. When these
opened with red-hot shot on the morn-
ing of the 26th, the doom of the Caro-
lina was sealed, her crew escaped in
their boats, and she blew up. The
Louisiana effected her escape while her
consort was the sole object of the Eng-
lish artillery. Now that the river was
thus cleared, and the left flank of his
force was no longer exposed to destruc-
tion if it moved forward on tiie road to
New Orleans, Pakenham made hi^ dis-
positions for decisive advance.

Plan of Battle.

He reorganized his army, dividing it
into two columns. That on the right
— consisting of the 4th, 21st, 44th, and
one West India Regiment — he placed
under command of General Gibbs ; the
other — comprising the 95th, 85th, 93d,
and the other West India regiment,
with all the available field-artillery,
now increased to ten guns — remained
under General Keane, and was to take
the left of the line, while the dragoons,
few of whom were yet mounted, fur-
nished the guards to hospitals and stores.

But there was still much to do. Heavy
guns, stores, and ammunition had to be

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY ANb GENERAL JACKSON.

371

brought from the distant fleet, the
wounded had to be disposed of, and the
numberless requirements of provision
and protection for an army in the field
had to be attended to. For two days
the English lay perforce inactive,
though their outposts were exposed to
constant harassing and deadly attack
from the American sharpshooters and
partisans.

In European war, by tacit conven-
tion, pickets and sentries confined them-
selves to the duties of watchfulness
alone ; but the riflemen of America saw
in every enemy's soldier a man to be
killed at any time, and they stalked in-
dividuals as they would have stalked
deer in their own backwoods, slaying
and wounding many, and causing anx-
iety by the never-ceasing straggling fire.

Begins to March.

A.t length all was ready for the long-
delayed advance, and on the bright,
frosty morning of the 28th the army
began its march. Confidence in a new
commander of high reputation had re-
stored spirits to the men ; cold, wet,
hunger, and broken rest were forgotten,
and as the enemy's advanced corps fell
back before them, hopes of conquest
were renewed. Four or five miles were
traversed without opposition. On the
dead flat of the plain nothing could be
seen far in advance of the columns, and
they had no cavalry to scout in front
and say what lay in their path.

Suddenly, where a few houses stood
at a turning in the road, the leading
files came iu view of the foe's position.
In their front was a canal, extending
from the morass on their left towards
the river on their right. Formidable
breastworks had been thrown up, pow-

erful batteries erected, while the Louisi-
ana and some gunboats moored in the
Mississippi flanked their right. Sudden
and tremendous was the cannonade,
withering the musketry fire that burst
upon the English column and mowed
down their ranks. Red-hot shot set
fire to the houses which were near to
them.

Infantry Hurled Back.

Scorched by flame, stifled with smoke,
shattered by the close discharge, the
infantry were, for the time, powerless,
and had to be withdrawn to either side
of the line of attack, and the artillery
were hurried forward to reply to the
American guns. To no purpose. The
contest was too unequal. The heavy
guns in the batteries and the broadsides
of the Louisiana destroyed the light
English field-pieces almost before they
could come into action. The infantry
again pressed forward, only to find
themselves hopelessly checked by the
canal. Staggered, shaken, and dis-
ordered, the English columns reeled
under the blows which they had re-
ceived.

A halt was ordered, and then, slowly,
sullenly, with sorrow, the whole force
fell back. Again Sir Edward Paken-
ham found himself obliged to bivouac
by the river side instead of occupying
New Orleans, again he had to consider
how the determined American resist-
ance was to be overcome. The Eng-
lish bivouac was formed two miles from
the American lines. A sorry place of
rest it was.

Once more the outposts were ex-
posed to the stealthy attacks of an
ever-vigilant, cunning, and active foe.
Even the main body was hardly secure,

372 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAIy JACKSON.

for, by giving their guns a great eleva-
tion, the Americans were occasionally
able to pitch their shot among the
camp fires.

Jackson Fortifying.

The possibility of turning the ene-
my's left by penetrating the morass
which protected it was contemplated,
but the idea had to be abandoned as
soon as conceived. In the meanwhile
General Jackson was vigorously at work
in strengthening his already strong po-
sition. Numerous parties could be seen
laboring upon his lines, and daily rein-
forcements came in to swell the num-
bers of their defenders. By the sugges-
tion of Commodore Patterson, a strong
field-work was constructed on the op-
posite bank of the river, and armed
with heavy ship-guns, from which a
flanking fire could be poured on all the
space over which the Knglish must at-
tack.

In view of the many difficulties which
presented themselves. General Paken-
ham called a council of war, which was
attended by all the English naval and
military leaders. It was impossible to
carry the American lines by assault, for
their powerful artillery would deal cer-
tain destruction to infantry columns.
To turn them was impossible, and their
defenders could not be induced by any
manoeuvring to leave their protection.
The council decided on the only other
possible alternative — to treat them as a
regular fortification, and, by breaching
batteries, to try to silence some of their
guns, and to make in them a practicable
gap, through which an entrance might
be effected. '

To give effect to this resolution the
29th, 30th, and 31st December were

employed in bringing up heavy cannon,
accumulating a supply of ammunition,
and making preparations as for a regu-
lar siege. When these arrangements
were complete — arrangements which
demanded the most strenuous and unre-
mitting toil from everyone, from the
general in command to the humblest
private soldier — hesitation had no place
and delay was at an end. Under cover
of night, on the 31st, half of the army
stole silently to the front, passing the
pickets, and halted within 300 yards of
the American lines.

Here a chain of works was rapidly
marked out, the greater part of the
detachment piled their firelocks, and
addressed themselves vigorously to work
with pick and shovel, while the remain-
der stood by armed and ready for their
defence. So silently and to such good
purpose was the work performed, that
before the day dawned six batteries were
completed, in which were mounted
thirty pieces of heavy ordnance.

Shrouded in Gloom.

The morning of the ist January,
181 5, broke dark and gloomy. A thick
mist obscured the sun, and, even at a
short distance, no objects could be seen
distinctly. The English gunners stood
anxiously by their pieces, and the whole
of the infantry were formed hard by,
ready to rush into the breach which
they hoped to see made. Slowly, very
slowly, the mist at length rolled away,
and the American camp was fully
exposed to view.

As yet unconscious of the near pre-
sence of the thirty muzzles which were
ready to belch forth their contents, the
Americans were seen on parade. Bands
were playing, colors flying, and there

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 373

was no preparation for immediate deadly
struggle. Suddenly the English batter-
ies opened, and the scene was changed.
There was a moment of dire confusion,
a dissolution of the ordered masses
which stood ready for review by their
general. The batteries were unmanned,
the pieces silent. But, though the
English salvo was unexpected, there
was no real unreadiness to resist and to
reply to its stern challenge.

Storm of Shot and Shell.

The American corps fell quickly into
their positions in the line of defence,
their artillery, after brief delay, opened
with rapidity and precision, the furious
cannonade on both sides rent the air
with its thunder, and battery answered
battery with storm of shot and shell.
Heavy as was the attackers' fire, how-
ever, it produced comparatively little
effect on the solid earthworks of the
defence, while the numerous guns which
Jackson had mounted, aided by the
flanking fire from the works on the
opposite bank of the river, were crush-
ing in their power.

Hour after hour the duel continued,
and yet no advantage was gained which
would warrant Pakenham in hurling his
infantry at the fortifica^^^ions that stood
in their front. The English ammuni-
tion began to fail and their fire slack-
ened, while that of the Americans
redoubled in vigor ; and towards evening
it became evident that another check
had been suffered, and that again the
invading army must fall back.

Dire was the mortification in the
English ranks, bitter the murmurs that
spread from man to man. The army
had endured hardships with cheerful-
ness, they had undertaken severest toil

with alacrity, but they had thought that
victory was their due, and still they
encountered repeated defeat. Now their
encampment was open to the enemy's
unremitting fire, and advance or retreat
seemed equally impossible.

But Pakenham had some, at least, of
the best qualities of a leader. He
refused to lose heart, and adopted a plan
which well merited success by its bold,
ness, and whose ultimate failure was in
no way to be credited to any laxity on
his part. He had recognized that the
enemy's flanking battery on the right
bank of the Mississippi waj, his greatest
obstacle, and he conceived the idea of
sending a strong force across the river,
which should carry this battery by
assault and turn its guns against the
Americans themselves, while a simul-
taneous attack should be delivered di-
rectly upon the intrenchments.

All at Work.

To do this, however, a sufficient num-
ber of boats must be provided, and it
was necessary to cut a canal from th > ;
Bayou Bienvenu wide and deep enough
to float the ships' launches now in the
lake. Upon this arduous undertaking
the whole of the force was at once set to
work. Day and night the labor was
carried on ; relay after relay of soldiers
took up the task, and by January 6th it
was accomplished. No better means
could have been taken to restore the
spirits of the men than the imposing of
work, however hard, which seemed to
promise a definitely favorable influence
on their fortunes.

Discouragement and forebodings were
still further dissipated by the unex-
pected arrival of Major-General Lambert
with the 7th and 43rd, two fine battal-

374 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON

ionSj each mustering 800 effective men.
Furtjier reinforcements of marines and
seamen also joined, bringing the Eng-
{yfib. fighting strength up to nearly

ANDREW JACKSON.

1 2,000. At the same date, General Jack-
son had probably about 5,000 under
his command.

It has been said that the canal from
the bayou to the river was finished on
the 6th, and no time was lost in carry-
ing out the plan of which it was so
great a factor. Boats were ordered up
for the conveyance of 1,400 men, and
Colonel Thornton, with the 85th, the
marines, and a party of sailors, was
appointed to cross the river. But ill-
fortune still dogged the English gen-
eral, still it seemed fated that his best-
laid plans should be frustrated by acci-

dent. The soil through which ttie
canal was dug being soft, part of the
bank gave way, choking the cliaunel
and frustrating the passage of the heavi-
est boats. These, in turn?
impeded others, and, in-
stead of a numerous flo-»
tilla, only sufficient for
about 350 men reached
their destination, and
even these did not arrive
at the time appointed.

It was intended that
Colonel Th'-n ton's force
should cross the Missis-
sippi immediately after
dark on the evening of
the 7th. They were to
carry the enemy's battery
and point the guns on
Jackson's lines before
daybreak on the 8th. The
discharge of a rocket was
to give them the signal
to commence firing, and
also was to let loose the
rest of the army in a di-
rect attack.

The disposition for thiu
attack was as follows : — General Keane>
with the 95th, the light companies of the
2 1st, 4th, and 44th, and the two West
India regiments, was to make a demon-
stration on the enemy's right ; General
Gibbs, with the 4th, 21st, ^4th, and 93rd
should force their left ; whilst General
Ivambert, with the 7th and 43rr ^ re-
mained in reserve. Scaling-ladders and
fascines were provided to fill the ditch
and mount the wall ; and the honorable
duty of carrying them to the point of
attack was allotted to the 44th, as being
the regiment most experienced in Amer-
ican war. It was hoped that the fate oi

iTICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAI. JACKSON. a?5

New Orleans would be sealed ou the 8th
January.

While the rest of the army laid down
to sleep on the night of the 7th, Colonel
Thornton, with 1,400 men, moved to
the river's brink. But the boats had
not arrived. Hour after hour passed
before any came, and then so few were
they that only the 85th, with about 50
seamen — in all 340 men — could be em-
barked. The duty admitted of no hesi-
tation or delay, and Colonel Thornton,
with his force thus sadly weakened,
pushed off.

Fatal Errors.

The loss of time was irreparable. It
was nearly dawn ere they quitted the
canal, and they should have been on the
opposite bank six hours earlier. In vain
they made good their landing without
opposition ; day had broken, the signal
rocket was seen in the air, and they
were still four miles from the battery
which ought long before to have been
in their hands.

Before daylight the main body was
formed in advance of the pickets, ready
for the concerted attack. Eagerly they
listened for the expected sound of firing,
which should show that Thornton was
doing his work ; but they listened in
vain. Nor did Pakenham's plan fail him
in this respect alone. The army 'mi its
stern array, was ready for the assanlt,
but not a ladder or a fascine was in the
field. The 44th, who had been ap-
pointed to bring them, had misunder-
stood or disobeyed their orders, and
were now at the head of the column
without the means of crossing the
enemy's ditch or mounting his parapet.

Naturally incensed beyond measure,
ihe general galloped to Colonel Mullens,

who led the 44th, and bade him return
with his regiment for the ladders ; but
the opportunity for using them was lost,
and when they were at last brought up'
they were scattered useless over the field
by the demoralized bearers.

A Withering Fire.

The order to advance had been given,
and, leaving the 44th behind them, the
other regiments rushed to the assault.
On the left a portion of the 21st, under
the gallant Rennie, carried a battery,
but, unsupported and attacked in turn
by overpowering nunibevs of the enemy,
they were driven back with terrible
loss. The rest of the 21st, with the
4th, supported by the 93rd, pushed with
desperate bravery into the ditch, and, in
default of the ladders, strove to scale the
rampart by mounting on each other's
shoulders — and some, indeed, actually
effected an entrance into the enemy's
works.

But, all too few for the task, they
were quickly overpowered and slain, or
taken prisoners. The withering fire
that swept the glacis mowed down the
attacking columns by companies. Vain-
ly was the most desperate courage dis-
played. Unseen themselves, the de-
fenders of the entrenchments fired at a
distance of a few yards into the throng
that stood helplessly exposed, while
the guns on the other side of the river
— yet unmenaced — kept up a dead!'
cannonade,, Never have English soldiers
died to so little profit, never has so
heavy a loss been so little avenged.

Sir Edward Pakenham saw his troops
in confusion, and the wavering in effort
which ever preludes hopeless flight.
All that a gallant leader could do was
done by him. The 44th had come up,

576 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON.

but in so great disorder that little could
be hoped from such a battalion. Riding
to their head, he called for Colonel
Mullens to lead them forward, but he
was not to be found at his post. Placing
himself at their head, the general pre-
pared to lead thera in person ; but his
horse was struck by a musket-ball,
which also gave him a slight wound.
He mounted another horse, and again
essayed to lead the 44th, when again he
was hit. Death took him before he had
tasted the full bitterness of defeat, and
he fell into the arms of his aide-de-
camp.

Brave Officers.

Colonel Mullens was subsequently
tried by court-martial and cashiered.
General Gibbs and General Keane did
not fail to do their duty as English
soldiers. Riding through the ranks,
they strove to restore order and to en-
courage the failing energy of the attack,
till both were wounded and were borne
from the field. Their leaders gone, and
ignorant of what should be done, small
wonder if the troops first halted, then
began slowly to retire, and then betook
themselves to disordered flight. Great
as was the disaster, its results might
have been even more crushing than
they were but that the 7th and 43d,
presenting an unbroken, steadfast front,
prevented any attempt on the part of
the Americans to quit the shelter of
their lines in pursuit. j

We left Colonel Thornton and his
340 men on the right bank of the Mis-
sissippi, and four miles from the battery
which they had been detailed to take,
and whose power was so severely felt
by the main body of the English army.
They had seen the signal-rocket which

told that their comrades were about to
attack, and late though they were, they
pressed forward to do their share of the
day's operations. A strong American
outpost was encountered, but it could
not withstand the rush of the 85th, and
fled in confusion. The position where
the battery was mounted was reached,
and to less daring men than Colonel
Thornton and his little following mighf
have seemed impregnable.

Desperate Assault.

Ivike their countrymen on the other
side, the Americans, 1,500 in number,
were strongly entrenched, a ditch and
thick parapet covering their front.
Two field-pieces commanded the road,
and flanking fire swept the ground over
which any attack must be made. The
assailants had no artillery, and no fas-
cines or ladders by means of which to
pass the entrenchment. But, unappalled
by superior numbers, undeterred by
threatening obstacles, the English
formed for immediate assault. The
85 th extended across the whole line ;
the seamen, armed with cutlasses as
for boarding, prepared to storm the
battery, and the few marines remained
in reserve.

The bugle sounded the advance. The
sailors gave the wild cheer that has so
often told the spirit and determination
of the British service, and rushed for-
ward. They were met and momentarily
checked by a shower of grape and can-
ister, but again they pressed on. The
85th dashed forward to their aid in the
face of a heavy fire of musketry, and
threatened the parapet at all points.
From both sides came an unremitting
discharge; but the English, eager to be
at close quarters, began to mount the

VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON.

371

parapet. The Americans, seized with
sudden panic, turned and fled in hope-
less rout, and the entrenchment, with
eighteen pieces of cannon, was taken.
Too late ! These very guns had been
able already to take their part in deal-
ing destruction to Sir Edward Paken-
ham's morning attack, and if they were
now taken — if their defenders were dis-
persed— they had done all that they
were wanted to do.

Even yet, if the disaster to the Brit-
ish main body had not been so complete
and demoralizing, they might have
been turned upon Jackson's lines and
covered a second assault ; but this was
not to be. General Lambert, on whom
had fallen the command of all that
remained of the army, resolved — per-
haps, under the circumstances, with
wisdom — to make no further attempts
on New Orleans. To withdraw his

army was, in any case, difficult ; an-
other defeat would have rendered it
impossible ; and, as the Americans had
gained confidence in proportion as the
English had lost it, defeat was only too
probable.

In the last fatal action nearly 1,500
officers and men had fallen, including
two generals, for General Gibbs had
only survived his wound for a few
hours. The English dead lay in piles
upon the plain. Of the Americans who
had so gallantly defended their country,
eight only were killed and fourteen
wounded.

Alas ! that electricity did not then
exist to prevent so great a sacrifice of
honor and life ; for the preliminaries of
peace between England and the United
States had been signed in Europe before
the campaign of New Orleans was be-
gun.

CHAPTER XXIV.

Great Battle of Gettysburg.

UR object in this part of the
present volume is to depict
only those famous battles in the
Nineteenth Century which had
a determining effect upon the fate of
nations, those decisive contests that
have either fully settled the important
questions in dispute, or have had a
powerful influence in doing this. There
have been bloody struggles between
great armies on the battle field that
may be called crises in the history of
nations. They have been turning points
in human affairs. Such a battle was
that of Gettysburg, a three days' fight
that turned the tide of fortune in the
great American Civil War.

Why in the outset the celebrated Con-
federate commander, Lee, undertook
the unpromising invasion of Pennsyl-
vania after the disastrous failure in
Maryland the fall before, and why once
north of the Potomac he did not, in-
stead of looking backwards, cut loose
entirely from hi« base and rush for
I^hiladelphia and the heart of the North,
are two moot questions of absorbing
interest to the veterans of the Civil War.
After the halt of Ivongstreet and Hill
in the vicinity of Chambersburg the
reason why the invasion was pushed no
further and Ewell was drawn back from
the Susquehanna is found in the vigor-
ous operations of the Union army.
Meade's unexpected appearance at Get-
teysburg admonished Lee that it was
••oo late to cross the Susquehanna. He
8'78

was compelled to concentrate, and his
defeat brought the invasion and all
hope of further advance to an end.

Lee's successes at Fredericksburg and
Chancellorsville had given him un-
limited confidence in his troops and the
natural inclination to belittle his enemy.
Grant's grip upon Vicksburg compelled
the reinforcement of the Confederates
in the West, or such movements else-
where as would compel Grant to detach
troops, and thus loosen his hold upon
the Mississippi stronghold. Lee ob-
jected at that time to dividing his army
by detaching any part of it to the West.
He preferred to do something on his
own front to relieve the Confederate
situation.

Therefore, during May and June,
1863, his army was strengthened in
every possible manner, and the crossing
of the Potomac determined upon in
order to transfer the war upon Northern
soil. These were the primary causes of
the invasion of Pennsylvania, and of
the great disaster which overtook the
Confederate army at Getteysburg.

A movement to the Potomac in force
was always an easy one for the Confed-
erate commanders. Covered by the
Rappahannock and the Blue Ridge
Mountains, Lee had no difficulty in
making the march, and on the route
surprising, capturing and scattering the
Union forces in the valley under Gen-
eral Milroy, an officer of courage and
patriotism, but of very unsound judg-

GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG.

379

ment and little military capacity. Until
Lee knew what effect his tentative move-
ments were having on the Union army
at Fredericksburg, under Hooker, his
march was hesitating and uncertain.
Hooker had quickly detected the Con-
federate withdrawal and foreshadowed
what actually followed, an invasion.

Across the Potomac.

He asked President Lincoln for per-
mission to cross the Rappahannock and
make a dash for Richmond, which it is
now clear from the official reports of
Lee would instantly have called him
back to the defense of his capital. Mr.
Lincoln, however, doubted the expe-
diency of Hooker's bold project. It is
probable after the Chancellorsville dis-
aster he had misgivings as to Hooker's
nerve and capacity. He, therefore, pre-
vented the proposed counter move on
Richmond, and henceforward Hooker
contented himself with simply moving
on interior lines to cover Washington.
The moment Lee perceived that Hooker
had withdrawn from the line of the
Rappahannock his hesitation disap-
peared. Longstreet and Hill imme-
diately followed Ewell in to the Shen-
andoah Valley.

On June 1 5 th the Confederate General
Ewell crossed the Potomac at Wil-
liamsport. Jenkins, with his cavalry,
was pushed forward to Chambersburg ;
Rodes's division occupied Hagerstown,
Md., and that of Edward Johnson,
Sharpsburg, while Early's division
threatened Harper's Ferry from the vi-
cinity of Shepherdstown.

On the 2 1st, while occupying these
positions Ewell received orders fr m
Lee to "take Harrisburg." At this
time the Confederate army was strung

out from Fredericsburg to Chambers-
burg, a most extraordinary and danger-
ous disposition in the immediate pre-
sence of the enemy. After Hooker's
withdrawal from Fredericsburg the long
Confederate line was now rapidly
shortened by the concentration of Long-
street and Hill at Chambersburg.

On the 24th Hill's corps crossed the
Potomac at Shepherdstown and vici-
nity, while Longstreet was crossing at
Williamsport. These two corps went
into bivouac at Chambersburg on the
27th, where they remained quietly un-
til the 29th of June, their foraging par-
ties meanwhile collecting supplies and
raiding the country in every direction.

A Ravenous Horde.

Their ravages were fearful. The
honest farmers and burghers of Mary-
land and the lower counties of the old
Keystone State must have been aghast
at the hungry hordes swarming up
from the South. General Lee, with
cool irony, reported that he gave orders
that all supplies taken must be care-
fully paid for, which was done in Con-
federate notes, then being worth but
little in the South itself, and nothing
whatever in Pennsylvania. A Union
scout at Hagerstown reported that the
Confederates carried their money in
flour barrels. The reckless abandon-
ment of these soldiers to liberality is
illustrated in the astonishment of one
rich old farmer, who was forced to take!
a five dollar Confederate note instead ^
of fifty cents in Union money for two
old horse-shoes.

Ewell had rapidly marched on Car-
lisle with Rodes's and Johnson's divi-
sions, sending Early to York. Carlisle,
only fifteen miles from Harrisburg,

380

GREAT BATTLE OP GETTYSBURG.

was occupied on the 27th and York
on the 28th. This movement had
again somewhat scattered the Con-
federates, but Lee at Chambersburg
with two-thirds of his army was about
ready to move forward in support of
Ewell's advance against Harrisburg
when something happened. General
Hooker had followed Lee across the
Potomac ; his movements up to June
28th had been well conceived and ad-
mirably carried out.

His eventual purpose had been to
throw himself across Lee's line of com-
munications with the Potomac and
force the Confederates to a decisive en-
gagement on his own terms. But a dis-
agreement arose between the General-
in-Chief, Halleck, at Washington, and
General Hooker, in regard to the dis-
position of the Union troops at Harper's
Ferry, and Hooker had thereupon asked
to be relieved of the command of the
Army of the Potomac. Halleck had no
confidence in Hooker, and the latter' s
request was instantly granted.

Two Gallant Commanders.
At that time there was only two ofii-
cers in that army whose character and
achievements had raised them to the
plane of so high and important a com-
mand. They were Major General John
F. Reynolds, commanding the First
Corps, and Major General George G.
Meade, commanding the Fifth Corps.
It is a curious fact that they were both
Pennsylvanians, and both were also
West Pointers. Reynolds ranked Meade,
and it is known that it was the original
intention of the military authorities to
confer the chief command on him when
Hooker should go. But Reynolds had
been sounded, and bad declined the

command unless allowed certain free-
dom of action, which it was deemea
inadmissable to grant. Therefore the
command was conferred upon General
Meade, who in turn gave the Fifth
Corps to General Sykes.

A Masterly Man.

\ his change occurred near Frederick,
Md., on the morning of June 28, only
three days before the armies met in
mortal combat at Gettysburg. Meade
was an able officer, who had grown up
with the Army of the Potomac, and
had the confidence of all the superior
generals. He was, perhaps, not a dash-
ing fighter, like Hooker or Reynolds,
but he was, nevertheless, a man of
courage and judgment, and knew how
to marshal troops on the field of battle
as well as any officer living. The three
chief figures in the Army of the Poto-
mac, Meade, Reynolds and Hancock,
were all Pennsylvanians, and all to
perform leading parts in the drama
upon Pennsylvania soil.

The new Federal commander, after
taking his bearings, abandoned Hook-
er's plan of merely following Lee and
placing the Union army square across
his communications. Meade's direc-
tions from Halleck were to cover Wash-
ington and Baltimore. General Meade
pushed all his corps directly northwards
on the inner line, with the object of
attacking any of Lee's forces that came
in his way, under the belief that this
would compel the Confederates to im-
mediately drop his movement across
the Susquehanna and turn and fight.
That was precisely the immediate eflfect
of Meade's movement.

This forward movement of the Union
army, then, was what had happened to

GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG.

381

change Lee's plans. Instead of order-
ing Longstreet and Hill forward to the
ncli fields of the Susquehanna, in sup-
port of Ewell, and, perhaps, to the
sacking of Harrisburg and Philadel-
phia, the crncentration of
the great rel -d fighting ma
chine was o be effected
by drawing Ewell' s scat-
tered divisions back to
Gettysburg. It is worth
noting here that upon learn-
ing of the rapid concentra"
tion of the Union army on
his immediate flank Lee's
original idea was to concen-
trate about Chanibersburg.
There are many well-in-
formed people who still
cling to tlie exploded no-
tion that the battle of Get-
tysburg was an accident. It
was not so.

After considering the sit-
uation for a few hours after
the necessity for withdrawal
of Ewell was admitted, Gen-
eral I/Ce perceived the im-
portance of Gettysburg as
a great strategic position by
reason of the many excellent turnpike
roads which radiate therefrom. At
Gettysburg he would not only occupy
a commanding position from which to
deliver battle, but one available from
which to fall back toward the Potomac
and one threatening both Washington
and Baltimore. These considerations
impelled Lee to change his previous
order to Ewell to come back to Chani-
bersburg, in the following terms ;

"Headquarters Army of Northern
Virginia, Chambersburg, June 28, 1863,
—Lieutenant General R. S. Ewell,

Commanding Corps — General : I wrote
you last night stating that General
Hooker was reported to have crossed
the Potomac, and is advancing by the
way of Middletown, the head of hi-^

GENERAL GEORGE G. MEADE.

column being at that point, in Frederick
county. I directed you in that letter
to move your forces to this point. If
you have not already progressed on the
road, and if you have no good reason
against it, I desire you to move in the
direction of Gettysburg, via Heidlers-
burg, where you will have a turnpike
most of the way, and you can thus join
your other divisions to Early's, which
is east of the mountains. I think it
preferable to keep on the east side ot
the mountains.

"R. E. Lee, GeneraV*

S82

GREAT B ATTIRE OF GETTYSBURG,

The history of the event is proof that
in thus changing the point of concentra-
tion from Chambersburg, which was
behind the screen of a mountain range,
to Gettysburg, in the close presence of
his enemy. General L/ce made a serious
mistake. We can now see that he was
playing into General Meade's hands.
It is obvious, however, from his Pipe
Creek plan of defensive battle, that
General Meade expected that Lee would
be compelled to do this very thing.
Had Lee remained at Chambersburg
Meade would have been compelled to
cross the mountain to beat him up, and
thus might have become the aggres-
sor against some strong position and
been defeated.

General Meade's Plan.

On the 28th and 29tli the northward
movement of the Union army had been
rapid ; General Reynolds had been put
in command of the left wing, on the
danger flank of the advance. It was
composed of the First, Third and
Eleventh Corps. On the 29th these
three corps, commanded by a fighting
General, who saw his native State for
the first time under the iron heel of the
invader, were within ten miles of Get-
tysburg. On the 30th Reynolds, with
the First Corps, had advanced to Marsh
creek, within four miles of Gettysburg,
while the Third and Eleventh Corps
remained at Emmittsburg.

It was during this day that General
Meade's policy of fighting behind the
iPipe creek line a defensive battle be-
' comes manifest in the movement of the
troops. While Reynolds was far out
toward the front and left, feeling for
the enemy, with orders to fall back be-
hind Pipe creek if practicable or advis-

able, in case of collision, the other corps
of the army were back from ten to
twenty-five miles from Gettysburg.
On the afternoon of the 30tli Buford's
division of cavalry had occupied Gettys-
burg, and remained there.

How the Battle Began.

Let us now turn to the Confederate
columns that we may understand how
the explosion occurred at Gettysburg,
and not along Pipe creek, as Meade
tentatively hoped it would. Rodes, of
Ewell's corps, was moving on Gettys-
burg from Carlisle, at the north, by
way of Heidlersburg ; Early was mov»
ing on Gettysburg from York, at the
east, by way of Heidlersburg; Hill's
corps, followed by Longstreet's two
divisions of Hood and McLaws, was
moving on Gettysburg from Chambers-
burg, at the west, joined by Johnson's
division, of Ewell's somewhere in the
vicinity of Cashtown, in the movement
of the 1st of July. Most of Hill's corps
was bivouacked at and about Cashtown
on the night of the 30th, ready to re-
sume the march in the morning. Early
and Rodes were not far from Heidlers-
burg.

Fifty thousand Confederates were
within eight miles of Gettysburg on
the morning of July ist, which was
occupied by Buford's small division of
cavalry, supported by the First Corps
of 9,000 infantry, four miles off. Be-
sides these there were approximately the
30,000 men of the Third, Eleventh and
Twelfth Corps from eight to ten miles
away. None of the Union troops were
in motion.

On the morning of July i, 1863, Gen-
eral Heth's division of Hill's Confed-
erate Corps marched on Gettysburg to

GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG.

383

tunity had come. The Pipe Creek line
dropped out of his mind instantly, and
he made ready for battle.

He then rode forward rapidly to join
Biiford at the front. The two generals
went up into the belfry of the seminary^

capture some shoes for his men, fol-
lowed by Pender's division. Buford's
cavalry had been put in position some
two miles in front of the town, squarely
across the road to Cashtown, and op-
posed Heth's advance. These opposing
troops collided about
9.30 A.M., on Wednes-
day, July I. Buford'f
position made the cor
centration of the Con^
federate army at Get-
tysburg impossible un-
less he was brushed
away. That was the
job now undertaken
by Heth, which pre-
cipitated the greatest
battle of the Civil War.
Heth, acting under
Lee's orders, did not
know this, but thought
he was making a sim-
ple raid for shoes.

Buford had detected
the advantages of Get-
tysburg, and deter-
mined to hold the town
until he could hear

from Reynolds. He had

1 r 11 ;, ^^A ^o GENERAL JAMES I,ONGSTREET

been fully convinced as ^ -'

early as the night previous that the
whole Confederate army was converg-
ing on Gettysburg. He sent a courier
to Reynolds with the information that
the Confederates in force were coming
down the Cashtown pike, and asking
for help and directions. Reynolds,
burning to fight at the first opportunity,
immediately put the First Corps, under
Doubleday, in motion to support Bu-
ford, and despatched orders to the Third
and Eleventh Corps, further in the rear,
to move forward rapidly. His oppor-

situated on Oak Ridge. An examina-
tion of Heth's lines and the road beyond
Willoughby's run through their field
glasses disclosing the rapid advance of
large bodies of Confederate infantry and
artillery, corroborated Buford's shout
to Reynolds on his arrival that the
"devil was to pay." Reynolds came
down and sent couriers in different di-
rections to hurry forward the Union
infantry. Buford's cavalry was now
hard pressed and slowly yielding to
Heth's advance.

384

GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG.

Buford made a magnificent fight, hold-
ing the Confederates at bay for an hour
or two. Heth had orders not to bring
on a general engagement until Lee's
army was all up, and his movements at
first were leisurely. Archer's and
Davis's Brigades were deployed on the
right and left of the Cashtown road,
and pushed forward towards Gettys-
burg and the shoes they so much
needed.

Getting Into Position.

Reynolds after making a rapid exam-
ination of the field and surrounding
topography, which was favorable for
defensive military operations, and di-
recting Buford to hold on, with the
remark that he would bring up his en-
tire three corps to this point, then rode
off rapidly to bring forward his leading
division of infantry, under General
James S. Wadsworth. It was hurried
across the fields and swung into line
behind Buford, who, thus relieved,
retired to the rear. General Cutler's
Brigade was on the right of the Cash-
town road, and Meredith's Brigade of
Western troops, known in the army
as the "Iron Brigade," on its left fac-
ing westward. Cutler confronting Davis
and Meredith Archer.

It is pretty well attested that this
great fight was opened by the Fifty-
sixth Pennsylvania, under Colonel Wil-
liam Hoffman, though it has been dis-
puted by the men of the Second Wis-
consin, of the Iron Brigade. However
this may be. Cutler's Brigade was
struck partially in flank by Davis, and
quickly repulsed and driven back. On
the left the Iron Brigade, led by the
Second Wisconsin, pushed forward for
McPherson's wooded ridge simulta-

neously with Archer's entry into it from
the west.

At that moment General Reynolds
rode up fror" the right, where he had
been anxiously observing Cutler's dis-
aster. He ordered the Iron Brigade to
advance at the double-quick, shouting
to the Second Wisconsin, " Forward,
men, forward, for God's sake, and drive
those fellows out of the woods !" These
were probably the last words he ever
uttered As he turned to look for and
direct the oncoming supports he was
struck in the head or upper neck
by a sharpshooter's bullet and fel'
dead.

Death of Reynolds.

But his splendid troops rushed for-
ward, driving the enemy back, clearing
the wood and capturing General Archer
and several hundred of his men. Thus
perished the great soldier, John F. Rey-
nolds. His death was a serious blow
to the Union cause, and for the moment,
for want of a directing head with pres-
tige sufficient to give moral weight to
his commands, endangered Union suc-
cess. But his courage and ready deci-
sion determined the field of battle and,
ultimately, the victory.

Cutler's lost ground was soon re-
covered by a brilliant charge of the
Sixth Wisconsin, of the Iron Brigade,
upon the flank of the Davis's Confed-
erate brigade, in which it captured the
Second Mississippi Regiment and its
flag. Davis was repulsed, and in turn
driven back greatly shattered. The
Union lines were then rectified. The
Second and Third Divisions of the First
Corps now arrived, deploying to the
right and left of Wadsworth under a
heavy artillery fire. Thus in half an

GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG.

385

hour Heth's advance had been checked
with heavy loss.

But his two remaining brigades were
brought forward, and Pender's fresh
division of 8000 men were at hand.
New dispositions were made and the
battle renewed. Rodes had now ap-
peared from the north, and was coming
down upon the right flank of the Union
line. Here were 24,000 Confederates
converging on a single Union corps of
9000 effectives. Besides, Early, from
York, was also arriving on its right
rear, with 8000 more.

The unequal contest was terrible,
but every effort of Heth, Pender and
Rodes to break the heroic First Corps
failed until late in the afternoon. It
received no help until after mid-day,
when General O. O. Howard's Eleventh
Corps, 9000 strong, began to arrive.

Howard Driven Back.
Howard assumed general command.
He sent two of his divisions to the
north of Gettysburg to protect the right
flank against Rodes and Early, the lat-
ter coming on from the north-east.
General Steinwehr was held in reserve
on Cemetery Hill, which was fortified.
But Early got upon the flank of How-
ard's troops, which were enfiladed by
his artillery, and, aided by an onset of
Rodes, they were broken and driven
back through Gettysburg in disorder.
This left the First Corps' right and
rear uncovered, and, in turn, forced its
rapid retreat through the town to the
heights beyond, where it joined Stein-
wehr and formed a new line from Culp's
Hill westward. The withdrawal of the
First Corps occurred about 4 p. m.
Many prisoners were lost by both corps
in the retreat through the town.
25

General I^ee arrived on Seminary
Ridge in time to see the victorious
advance of his troops and the disorgan-
ized Federals streaming up Cemetery
Hill. He sent discretionary orders to
Ewell to pursue, but that officer, en-
gaged in readjusting his broken lines,
made no further advance. He has been
greatly criticised by Confederate parti-
sans for his failure to follow up his
advantages. But as the almost impreg-
nable line of Culp's and Cemetery Hill
was defeated by at least 10,000 men,
3,500 of whom had not fired a gun, sup-
ported by a powerful artillery, it is
probable Ewell would have been re-
pulsed had he attacked.

He reported that the position was for-
midable, and that it would have been
absurd to attack it then in his condi-
tion. Night closed on the first day's
battle at Gettysburg. A general battle
had been precipitated by the fighting
energy of General Reynolds, in spite of
Ivee's orders to delay an engagement
until the whole army was up.

No Jackson There.

General Lee was now without his
great leader and incomparable fighter,
General T. J. Jackson, popularly called
"Stonewall Jackson," and was com-
pelled to bear the whole responsibility
of the engagement. It was thought by
many that if such an able general as
Jackson had been on the field the final
result might have been different.

The magnitude of this battle of the
1st set aside all theoretical schemes to
decoy Lee down to Pipe creek. About
midday General Meade, at Taneytown,
was informed of Reynold's death and
the state of the battle. Later Buford
sent word that a "tremendous battle

88(5

GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG.

was raging with varying success ;' ' that
"there seems to be no directing head,''
and that "we need help now." Gen-
eral Meade never hesitated when con-
fronted with the necessity of changing
his plan ; he prepared to fight at Gettys-
burg. General W. S. Hancock was
ent forward to assume command and

GENERAL T. J. (sTONEWALL) JACKSON.

advise Meade of the practicability of
fighting a battle there. His report was
favorable, and the whole army was im-
mediately sent forward to Gettysburg.

Between sundown and 7 a. m. of July
1 St the Second, Third, Fifth and Twelfth
Corps had arrived and gone into position
along Cemetery Ridge. The Sixth
Corps, twenty-five miles away, did not
arrive until afternoon. General Meade
him.self rcachc-'l Gett'-.s'^iir-^ At nn"d-

night, and rode his lines, giving orders
for the disposition of the troops as they
arrived. General Hunt, its chief, placed
the artillery.

On the Confederate side, with the
exception of Pickett's division and
Law's brigade, Longstreet's corps ar-
rived on the morning of the 2d, and the
two armies were now
concentrated face to face
for battle.

General Sickles, with
the Third Corps, in the
absence of definite orders,
had established himself
somewhat to the front on
the extreme left, on some
high ground, forming a
sort of salient in the main
line. After some doubts
whether to attack with
Ewell on the Union right
or its left, with Long-
street, General Lee finally
selected Sickles as his
point of attack on the
2d, Hood and McLaws
were to attack up the
Emmittsburg road from
the south, while Hill
pressed Sickles in front
from the west.

The attack was not de-
livered until late in the afternoon, but,
like all of Longstreet's work, it was de-
livered with great impetuosity and ad-
dress when at last it came. Nearly liali
theUnion army was brought to Sickles's
aid during the battle, and the Confed
erate advance was on^y stopped about
nightf^dl, but not until after Sickles had
been wounded, his corps driven from its
faulty position and the Union leaders
almost in despair. It was a fearful trial,

GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG.

387

But as Longs treet afterwards said, his
success had driven the Third Corps back
into its proper place, where the line was
unassailable. Longstreet penetrated no
vital part of the line, but he threatened'
the Union army with a great disaster
when Hood's men began the ascent of
Round Top ere it was occupied. But
/General Warren energetically brought
troops upon the ground in time to
repulse the enemy and save that vital
position. lyongstreet lost 5,000 men in
these assaults, and the Union army an
equal number.

Union Army Threatened.

Hwell was to have attacked the Union
right beyond Gulp's Hill simultane-
ously with Longstreet's movement, but
the concert miscarried, and Ewell did
not deliver battle until Longstreet's
efforts had been exhausted or defeated.
It was nearly night before Johnson and
Early advanced, Rodes having failed to
join in their attack. Early had some
success at first along the east front of
Cemetery Hill, but was eventually
driven back with loss. Farther to the
right Johnson's main attack was re-
pulsed by the heroic Greene, but he
occupied without opposition the breast-
works of Ruger and Geary, withdrawn
to reinforce Sickles.

This unexpected success threatened
the Baltimore pike and the rear of the
Union army, but it was too dark for
the enemy to perceive their advantage,
and they sunk to rest without further
effort. In the night Ruger's and
Geary's commands returned ; finding
the Confederates in possession, the
leaders made dispositions to attack at
daylight and drive them out.

Although practically repulsed, the 1

positions obtained by Longstreet on the
Union left on the high ground along
the Emmittsburg road and close up to
the Round Tops, and by Ewell on the
right, determined Lee to persist in his
attack on the Third. It was concluded
to be feasible to break the Union centre
along the west front of Cemetery Ridge,
held by Hancock with the Second
Corps and part of the First Corps.
Pickett's division of the fifteen Virginia
regiments had arrived from Chambers-
burg.

This, with Heth's division, was se-
lected for the work in hand. Pettigrew
in command of the latter in the absence
of Heth, wounded. Pickett was on
the right and Pettigrew on the left ;
the former was to be supported by
Wilcox and Perry's brigades, the latter
by Lane and Scales. Altogether the
attacking column consisted of not less
than 15,000 men, but Pettigrew's troops
were unfit for so desperate an under-
taking by reason of their fearful losses
on the 1st.

A Hard Struggle.
While these preparations were in
progress for the final assault a heavy
battle had begun on the Union right
for the possession of the abandoned
breastworks of the Twelfth Corps.
General Williams, who commanded it,
attacked Ewell at daylight with the
divisions of Ruger and Geary, and the
battle continued with varying fortunes
until after 10 o'clock. Finally John-
son's Confederates, driven back at all
points, sullenly retired across Rock
creek, and with their retreat the battle
of Gettysburg ended on the Union
right in decisive victory. On the whole,
after the first day's success, Ewell 's

388

GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG.

efforts throughout the battle had been
feeble and unavailing. He had been
unable to bring the decimated division
of Rodes into action at all, and Early
and Johnson had been squarely defeated.
These were the results on the right.

Thunder of Guns.

The grand assault of Pickett and
Pettigrew, under Longstreet, was pre-
ceded at about i p. m. by a tremendous
artillery fire from 150 Confederate can-
non, responded to by perhaps a hundred
Union guns. This cannonade contin-
ued for nearly two hours, causing great
havoc inside the Union lines, but no
great loss of life. It failed to shake the
Union soldiery. By order of General
Hunt the Union fire was slackened and
finally ceased entirely to give oppor-
tunity to bring up fresh batteries and
ammunJtion to meet a heavy infantry
assault which it was already divined by
the Union leaders was now impending.
It soon developed.

To reach the Federal lines the Con-
federates had to march a mile over open
rolling fields under fire of many bat-
teries. Their lines of battle, nearly a
mile long, swept out of the woods along
Seminary Ridge about 3.30 p. m., and
the crisis of the battle was at hand.
Their advance was watched hopefully
by lyce and lyongstreet, and eagerly by
thousands of admiring eyes on both
sides. The Federal soldiers were not
unnerved by the threatening sight; the
soldiers of Hancock were coolly waiting
to redeem their losses at Fredericks-
burg.

As they came on the Federal shot
and shell and then canister from a
hundred guns began to tear wide gaps
in their lines. This frightful fire came

from front and flank ; their line wai!
enfiladed by the batteries on Round
Top. Pettigrew' s men on the left be-
gan to drift and lag behind under the
weight of the Union fire, and Pickett
was soon in the lead alone. When
within a third of a mile of the Union
front Pickett halted, coolly readjusted
his lines and changing direction more
toward the left, resumed his advance.

Mad Rush of Federals.

Wilcox and Perry did not change
their direction, but kept straight on,
and soon there was a considerable in-
terval between them and Pickett on the
latter' s right. Pickett first struck Gen-
eral Hays's advanced troops, and then
Gibbon's division. Some of them were
slightly pressed back at first, but the
Confederates were quickly overwhelmed
by the mad rush of the charging Fed-
erals. General Stannard's Vermont
brigade changed front and attacked
Pickett in flank, in the interval caused
by the movement of Wilcox and Perry
crowding Kemper's brigade back upon
the centre and capturing many pris-
oners.

At the foot of the acclivity, led by
Armistead, with his hat upon his sword
point, the Confederates made a last feeble
rush, and penetrated among some of the
Union guns, But attacked on all sides
by the men of Webb, Hall, Harrow
and Stannard, they were driven back
in utter rout. Garnett and Armistead
were killed and Kemper wounded.
Pickett lost in this ill-fated charge 3,000
men in about an hour's time. He had
no chance from the first. Only a por-
tion of Pettigrew's command reached
the front on the Confederate left; they
were easily beaten off by Hays' well-

aREAT BATTLE OF GET? YSBURG.

posted troops who captured nearly
1,500 prisoners. Wilcox on the ex-
treme right, was met by Caldwell's di-
vision in front, and the omnipresent
Stannard in flank, and beaten
easily, losing heavily.

During the day a heavy cavalry
battle had been fought for posses-
sion of the Baltimore pike in the
Union rear, between Stuart and
Gregg, and Stuart's designs were
thwarted, He drew off discom-
fited. Thus, his troops beaten at
all points, lyce's hopes were shat-
tered. He ventured no more offen-
sive movements. He expected a
counter attack, but Meade was sat-
isfied with the results already ob-
tained, and awaited Lee's move-
ments. That night Lee began to
send his trains and wounded to the
rear, while he held a fortified line
along Seminary Ridge throughout
the 4th to cover their removal.

After nightfall on the 4th he
quietly retired from Meade's front by
the Fairfield road toward Hagerstown,
and the invasion of Pennsylvania had
come to an inglorious end within ten
days of the time Longstreet and Hill
crossed tne Potomac to the support of
Ewell.

This pivotal battle marked the turn-
ing l^oint in the success of the Confed-

erates wi h as gallant an army as ever
faced an ^nemy, and under a general-
ship uneq'^alled for strategy, dash and

GENKRAI, ROBEJRT E. LEK— COMMANDER-IN-
CHIEF OP CONFEDERATE ARM\.

brilliancy. The remainder of the Civil
War was merely the closing of the great
tragedy. Other battles were fought
and the brave Southerners continued
the struggle with a courage and des-
peration that challenged the admiration
of the world, but their fate was sealed
and their hopes vanished at the bloody,
historic field of Gettysburg.

CHAPTER XXV.

Battle of Inkerman and Capture of the Malakoff.

JarNKERM AN has been rightly called
hI the "Soldiers' Victory," but it
eJJL might be still more justly styled
"The British Soldiers' Battle."
It was from first to last — from its un-
expected opening at early dawn, through
all its changing episodes in the hours
before noon and until midday brought
the crisis, through attack and counter-
attack, offence and defence, onslaught
and recoil — one of the finest feats of
arms accomplished by British troops.
It takes rank with Agincourt, Rorke's
Drift, the defence of Lucknow ; with
New Orleans and Waterloo : equal to
the best of these, overshadowing some,
surpassing others ; in its way unique —
a bright and shining tribute to the war-
like courage of a nation already laurel-
crowned.

Many British battles have been won
against great odds, under tremendous
disadvantages ; but none have better
shown inflexible, unconquerable tena-
city than Inkerman. It was fighting
for safety too ; had the British been de-
feated at Inkerman their army would
have been swept into the sea ; but these
great issues were not fully realized by
the rank-and-file.

They knew they must win the day:
that was their business, as it always is.
But the fact that they were so near
losing it made no great difference to
them — all they thought of was to come
to blows, to try conclusions with the
enemy, to charge him, bayonet him,
shoot him : always supremely indijffer-
890

ent to his vast numerical superiority
and quite undismayed by his courage.

So it was that the strange spectacle
was seen of a handful resisting thou-
sands, of a weak company charging
through battalion columns, of stalwart
soldiers engaging a crowd of the ene-
my single-handed and putting them to
rout. When ammunition ran short, as
it often did in the deadliest episodes,
the men tore up great stones and hurled
them at the foe; a few scores of gun-
ners, when hard pressed, fought on with
swords, and rammers, and sponges, and
sticks, even with fists — for the story of
the Clitheroe bruiser who felled Rus-
sian after Russian with knock-down
blows is perfectly true.

Men so eager for the conflict found
officers as willing to lead them ; there
was no hesitation, no waiting to re-
form, to rejoin regiments ; any broken
body gathered round any commander,
all were ready to stand fast and die, go
forward and die, do anything but re-
tire. "What shall I do?" asked
Colonel Egerton, at the head of his
bare 200, when pitted against unknown
numbers. " Fire a volley and charge !"
at once answered the brigadier; and his
aide-de-camp, young Hugh Clifford,
sprang to the front to be in with the
first fight.

General Pennefather, at the end of
five hours' fighting, when he had lost
more than half his small force, did not
abate his confidence one jot : if Lord
Raglan now would only give him a few

INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF.

391

more men, he said, he would finish the
battle out of hand and " lick the enemy
to the devil." Waterloo was " hard
pounding," as Wellington quietly re-
marked afterwards, but it was nothing
to Inkerman.

A Slow Siege.

The battle of Inkerman was brought
about by the restored confidence that
great and overwhelming reinforcements
gave the Russian generals inside Se-
bastopol. After the successful landing,
the victory of the Alma, the unim-
peded flank march to the south side of
the still incomplete fortress, the allied
English and French had achieved no
fresh triumphs. Prudence had over-
ruled the daring but not quite unwar-
ranted counsels to go straight in against
Sebastopol; an immediate attack was
deemed too dangerous, the golden op-
portunity passed, and it became neces-
sary to sit down before the stronghold
and reduce it by the slow processes of
a siege.

The allies were thus planted in a cor-
ner of the Crimea, committed to the
highland or upland of the Chersonese,
as it was called, the only ground they
could possibly occupy when attacking
Sebastopol from the south side — ground
that no one would have selected had
choice been unfettered, for it was
rugged, inhospitable, very extensive,
and above all exposed on one flank
right round, almost to the very rear.
Balaclava, the British base of supply,
at a distance of six miles from the front,
lay open to attack by an enterprising
enemy, and almost the whole length of
road which connected it with the Brit-
ish camp.

How fully the Russians realized this,

how nearly they overbore the weak re-
sistance offered by the Turks who de-
fended this vulnerable point, how nobly
a handful of British cavalry spent itseF
in beating back disaster is a well known
story.

Prince Mentschikofi", who commanded j
the Russian forces in and about Sebas-
topol, exultantly foresaw the complete
annihilation of the allies. He believed
that they were at the end of their tether.
In his reports to St. Petersburg he de-
clared that the enemy never dared now
to venture out of his lines, his guns
were silent, his infantry paralyzed, his
cavalry did not exist.

Great Russian Host.

The Russians, on the other hand,
were once more enormously in the as-
cendant : troops had been pouring into
Sebastopol continuously all through the
month of October, 1854 5 ^ whole army
corps had arrived from Odessa ; two
other divisions were close at hand on
the 2d of November, and by the 4th,
the eve of the battle of Inkerman, the
total of the land forces assembled in and
around the fortress must have been
quite 120,000 men. This total was just
double that of the allies, including the
Turks, available for all purposes, in-
cluding the siege of a great fortress,
which alone might claim the whole
efforts of the army.

No wonder, then, that Mentschikoff
was full of confidence, that he counted
upon an easy triumph, nothing less than
sweeping the allies off" the upland into
the sea. " The enemy," he wrote, " can-
not effect his retreat without exposing
himself to immense losses. Nothing
can save him from a complete disaster.
Future times, I am confident, will pre-

392

INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF.

serve the remembrance of the exemplary
chastisement inflicted upon the pre-
sumption of the allies." Two of the
Czar's sons were hurried post-haste to
the Crimea to stimulate the enthusiasm
of the troops and witness their splendid
triumph.

Some inkling of the impending dis-
aster— prematurely so called, as was
soon to be proved — crept out and gave
general uneasiness even at a distance
from the theatre of war. Friends in
Russia warned friends in England to
anticipate terrible news. The great
effort approaching was prepared under
the direction of the Czar himself, and
was of a nature and extent to deal an
overv/helming blow.

Another Battle at Hand.

In the Crimea itself vague intelligence
reached the allied commanders that a
terrible struggle was near at hand.
Reports of the reinforcements arriving,
of the stir and activity within the for-
tress, the repair of roads, the mending
of bridges, all the indications that are
plain as print to the experienced mili-
tary intelligence, warned Lord Raglan
and General Canrobert to be on the look-
out for another momentous battle, for
which, in truth, they were but badly
prepared.

Some idea of the disproportion be-
tween the armies about to come into
collision will rightly be given here, so
that we realize at once how overmatched
were the allies, how marvellous there-
fore was their prolonged resistance and
eventual triumph on that now historic
5th of November, the Inkerman Sun-
day which in British annals has eclipsed
that other anniversary of the Gunpow-
der plot.

It has been said above that the Rus-
sian forces totalled 120,000 in all. Of
these rather more than half, or 70,000
men, were actually present in the field.
All took part in the action, but some only
as covering forces or engaged in feints :
these numbered some 30,000; the re-
mainder, just 40,000, composed the at-
tacking columns, and fought the battle
of Inkerman. The whole allied strength
that day upon the upland of the Cher-
sonese was 65,000, but barely a quarter
of these numbers could be or, as a mat-
ter of fact, were used in the coming
action. From first to last the total
French and English forces on the ground
were just 15,683 — half of each, but more
exactly 7,464 English and 8,219 French
— and of the latter 3,570 were actually
engaged. There is no mistake or ex-
aggeration in these figures, which are
based on official returns on both sides.

Few Against Many.

It must, moreover, be carefully borne
in mind that only a proportion, and a
small proportion, of these 15,000 were
on hand in the early stages of the fight.
For hours the brunt of the battle fell
upon the 2d division, which was barel}'
3,000, although opposed to 40,000, and
the reinforcements came to them in
driblets slowly and affording but meagre
assistance and relief It is from the ex-
traordinary tenacity shown by British
soldiers in their prolonged and indom-
itable resistance against such tremend-
ous odds that such great glory was
achieved at Inkerman.

The allied weakness, of which Lord
Raglan was fully aware, was caused by
the stress laid upon their forces by the
siege operations and the need of pro-
tecting their communications. The

INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF.

39^

troops, taking them from west to east
and so to the south and rear, covered a
front which was twenty miles long.
Before Sebastopol the French were on
the left, the English on the right ; but
General Canrobert, always anxious for
the rear of his position, kept a large
force on the heights above the Tcher-
uaya valley, and the English perforce
garrisoned and defended Balaclava.

Defence Weakened.
Hence on the right flank of the Brit-
ish front, round about Inkerman as it
came to be called (although the real site
of old Inkerman is on the opposite side
of the Tchernaya river), the defence
was greatly impoverished, being limited
in the first instance to a few weak bat-
talions of the 2d division. Its immedi-
ate support — none too close — was a
brigade of the Light Division under
General Codrington on the Victoria
Ridge adjoining, but on the other side
of a wide rough ravine; behind, and
three-quarters of a mile oflf, was the
brigade of Guards, twice that distance
the 2d brigade (Buller's) of the Light
Division ; the 4th and 3d divisions,
fronting Sebastopol and more or less
appropriated to the siege works, were
two or three miles removed from the
extreme right flank.

A French army corps under Bosquet
was, however, within the lesser distance,
holding the eastern heights which gave
General Canrobert so much concern.
But the forces thus described made up
the sum total of the allied armed strength ,
and every portion had its particular place
and specified duties. None could well
be withdrawn from any part without
denuding it of troops or dangerously
weakening the long defensive line. ,

There were, in fact, no reserves, no
second line to call up in extreme emer-
gency to stiffen and reinforce the first.
The allies were fighting with their
backs to the wall. Retreat was impos-
sible because there were no fresh troops
to interpose and cover it.

Serious Situation.
The weakness of the 2d division in
such an isolated and exposed position
had long been a source of serious mis-
giving. Its commander. Sir DeLacy
Evans, deemed his force — weakened,
moreover, by constant outpost duty—
to be perilously small. He called it
"most serious." Sir George Brown,
who commanded the Light Division,
was equally solicitous. Lord Raglan,
the general-in-chief, knew the dan-
ger too ; he reported home that his
men of the 2d division were well posted,
"but there were not enough of them."
But he was ever buoyant and hopeful,
anticipating no great trouble, yet alive
to his perils and fully prepared to meet
them. " We liave plenty to think of,''
he wrote to the English War Minister,
"and all I can say is that we will do
our best."

Strange to say, that best did not in-
clude any artificial strengthening of
the position by entrenchments. The
ground was admirably suited for de-
fence, and might have been made all
but impregnable — or, at least, capable
of withstanding even determined at-
tacks. Earthworks would have gone
far to redress the balance of numbers
telling so heavily against the allies;
but only one meager barrier was erected,
and even this was destined to prove of
inestimable value in the battle.

The prompt use of the spade was not

394

INKERMAN ^ND THE MALAKOFF.

then deemed an es.s'jntial part of the
soldier's field training, and, as the
opening of the trenches before Sebas-
topol had entailed much labor of that
kind, the troops were spared more of
it, even although indispensably neces-
sary as everyone now knows.

Superior Numbers.

The Russian general had not failed
to detect the inherent defects in the
British line or to note carefully its
weakest point. Upon this he based
his plan of operations. He meant to
envelop and crush the exposed right
flank by vastly superior numbers, while
well-timed demonstrations that might
be expanded into attacks should occupy
the allied forces at other parts of the
field. This simple and perfectly plausi-
ble scheme was to be worked out as
follows :

Two great columns, making up a
combined strength of 40,000 men, with
135 guns, were to constitute the main,
the most weighty, and as it came to
pass, the only real attack. Both were
drawn from the newly-arrived 4th or
Dannenberg's Army Corps. One, call-
ed the loth Russian Division, com-
manded by General Soimonoflf, which
had entered and was actually quartered
within Sebastopol, was to take one
flank, the left of the English position ;
the other, under General Paulofl", the
I ith division, still outside the fortress
and lying north of the Tchernaya river,
was to attack the English right.

Soimonoflf' s force was strengthened
by other regiments in the garrison, and
its infantry strength was 19,000, his
guns 38 in number. He was to issue
from Sebastopol at a point between the
Malakoflf Hill and the Little Redan,

then follow the course of the Carenag,..?
ravine, and to come out on the northern
slopes of Mount Inkerman, where he
was to join hands with Pauloff, who.
marching from the heights of Inkerman
on the far side of the Tchernaya, wa'^:
to cross that river and the low swampy
ground that margined its course by the
bridge near its mouth.

Expected Sweeping Victory.

This general commanded 16,000 in-
fantry and had with him 96 guns. His
orders were to ascend the northern
slopes of Mount Inkerman and push
on vigorously till he met with Soimon-
off". When thus combined the whole
force of 40,000 (including artillerymen)
was to come under the direction of the
Army Corps commander. General Dan-
nenberg, and his orders were to press
forward and carry all before him. It
was confidently expected that noth-
ing could withstand him — that he would
'•roll up" the weak opposition of the
English right, beat all that he encoun-
tered and sweep victoriously onward
right past the Windmill Hill to the
eastern heights in the rear, and within
easy distance of Balaclava.

Meanwhile, Prince Gortschakoflf, who
now commanded the army hitherto
known as Liprandi's, in the valley of
the Tchernaya, and had under him a
force of 22,000, with 88 guns, was to
"contain" Bosquet — occupy his atten-
tion, that is to say, by feints and false
attacks upon his position, so that he
should be held to these heights and
unable to reinforce the English right.

Later, when the main attack had
prospered and Dannenberg's victorious
troops were seen well to the south of
Windmill Hill, Gortschakoflf 's demon-

INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF.

395

strations were to be converted into a
real attack. He was to go up against
the heights with all his force, drive
back Bosquet, join hands with Dan-
nenberg, and the Russians would then
be in triumphant possession of the
greater part of the Chersonese upland.
After that the siege must be raised, the
allies must be swept off the plateau,
destroyed, taken prisoner, or hurried
into disastrous flight upon their ships.

To Move In Force.

A third conditional operation was
entrusted to the troops remaining in
garrison, under the command of Gene-
ral Moller. He was to closely " watch
the progress of the battle," cover the
right of the attacking troops with his
artillery without attempting to reply
to the fire of the allied siege-guns.
Whenever confusion showed itself in
the trenches, due to the great wave of
victory setting from the eastward, he
was to move out in force, attack and
seize the siege-batteries.

Capable military critics have not
failed to condemn the foregoing plan of
operations. It erred, in the main attack,
by trusting too entirely to numbers,
crowding great masses of men on
ground not spacious enough to hold
them. There was not sufficient room,
indeed, upon the Russian battlefield for
half the forces engaged. Moreover,
this ground, imperfectly known to
the men who held it and might have
carefully studied it, was cut in two by
a great ridge, which divided the two
columns intended ^^o join forces, and
prevented their cor-ibined action.

General Dannenberg appears to have
realized this diffirulty and wished his
two generals, Soimonoflf and Pauloff, to

act independently, the former directing
his efforts against the Victoria Ridge,
altogether to the westward of Mount
Inkerman, and leaving the latter ample
space to manoeuvre. But Dannenberg's
wishes were not distinct orders, and
Soimonoff, obeying Mentschikoff, the
general-in-chief, held on to the original
plan.

Again, Gortschakoff's role condemn-
ed him to play a waiting game, and
give no effective help until that help
was no longer urgently required. He
was to do nothing, in fact, until the
main attack had actually succeeded.
The longer the enemy resisted, the
longer he remained inactive. Had he
exerted a stronger pressure, had his
feints been pushed with more insistence,
he would have paralyzed the movement
of the French with Bosquet, and by
the very direction of his attack weak-
ened the English defence at Inkerman.
" His advance was, however, left to
depend upon a contingency that never
occurred" — and while he waited for it
his 22,000 men were of absolutely no
use in the fight.

Rough Battle Field.

The whole surface of the field of bat-
tle was thickly covered with brushwood
and low coppice, amidst which crags
and rocky boulders reared their heads.
In some places the woods gathered into
dense forest glades, and in others the
ravines were steeply-scarped quarries
difl&cult of access.

Soimonoff started at 5 a. m., amid
darkness and mist, which so favored
his march that he reached Mount In-
kerman unobserved, and then and there
seizing its highest point. Shell Hill, he
placed his guns in battery on the crest

396

INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF,

quite unknown to the Britisli outposts.
The night had been reported unusually-
quiet, although some fancied they heard

fore the alarm was raised. They were
pressed back fighting, while the guns
on Shell Hill opened a destructive fire.

VIEW OF TOWN AND FORTREISS OF SEBASTOPOIv.

the rumbling of distant wheels — the
wheels, in fact, vf Pauloff's artillery.
Just before dawn, too — it was Sunday
morning — all the bells of Sebastopol
rang out a joyous peal, not for worship,
but to stimulate the courage of the pious
Russian soldiery.

But outpost duty in those days was
imperfectly performed, and the enemy
was on top of the British pickets be-

General Pennefather, who was in tern
porary command of the 2d division^
realized at once that serious events were
at hand. It was not in his nature to
retreat before the coming storm. He
was a "fine fighter ; " in another rank
of life he would have been in his ele-
ment with a "bit of a twig" at Donny-
brook Fair. "Whenever you see a
head, hit it" was his favorite maxim in

INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF.

3»>

war ; and now, where a more cautious
leader would have drawn oif and lined
the Home Ridge in defensive battle, he
thrust forward with all his meagre forces
to meet the Russian attack.

This daring system was greatly aided
by the state of the atmosphere ; in the
fog and mist no notion of the pitiful
number of their opponents reached the
Russians, and the handful of English
forgot that they were unsupported and
so few. Pennefather's plan, born of his
fighting propensities and indomitable
pluck, found favor with his superiors,
for when presently Lord Raglan, the
English commander-in-chief, came upon
the ground, he did not attempt to inter-
fere, but left the audacious Irishman
the uninterrupted control of the fight.

Russian Column Shattered.

They were meagre indeed — these first
English defenders of Mount Inkerman.
Pennefather had of his own barely 3,000
men all told, and only 500 men came
up in the first instance to reinforce him.
But he sent all he had dowR, in the
brushwood out in front till it was filled
with a slender line. Meanwhile Soim-
onoff, waxing impatient and having all
ready, was determined to begin without
waiting for Pauloff's co-operation. His
guns on Shell Hill had "prepared" his
advance, and soon after 7 A. m. he sent
three separate columns against the left
of the British position on Home Ridge.

The first of these, on the extreme
right, under road column, as it was
called, got a long way round, when it
met a wing of the 47th under Fordyce
and a Guards picket under Prince Ed-
ward of Saxe-Weimar, before whom it
turned tail ; the second column had no
better fortune on the Miriakoflf spur;

the third, following up the course of the
MiriakofF glen, encountered a wing of
the 49th under Grant, who at once gave
the order to " fire a volley and charge."
His counter-attack was delivered with
such determination that it carried all
before it ; the Russian column was
fairly broken up and driven helter-
skelter under the guns on Shell Hill.

Smote Fiercely.

Now Soimonoflf came on in person at
the head of twelve battalions, nearly
9,000 men. His aim was the centre
and left centre of the allies, and for a
time he made good progress. But the
first supports, those from the Light
Division, arriving, Pennefather at once
used them against Soimonoff. He sent
on the 88th Connaught Rangers, 400 of
them who, feeling the whole weight of
the attack, recoiled, and retreating left
the three guns of Townshend's battery
in the enemy's hands. Then the 77th
under Egerton, but led also by the
brigadier Buller, came up and caught
Soimonofi"'s outside column — caught it
and smote it so fiercely that it fled and
was no more seen on the field.

These Russians were 1,500 strong.
Egerton had no more than 250, but he
never faltered, and his men, answering
like hounds to his cry, tore straight on
at the run and smashed in with irre-
sistible fury. There was an interval of
raging turmoil in which the bayonets
made fearful havoc ; then the Russians
ran, Egerton pursuing at the charge to
the foot of Shell Hill. About this time
General Soimonoff was killed. Eger-
ton's action had wide-reaching conse-
quences. Through it the abandoned
three guns were recovered, the 88th ral-
lied, the 77th themselves or their rem-

^98'

INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF.

nant held fast *for hours the ground it \
had secured.

These combats disposed of about half
the forces Soimonoff had put forward
in this attack. The remainder had ad-
vanced courageously against the allied
centre by both sides of the post- road ;
but they also were beaten back, partly
by the fire of field guns, partly by the
spirited charge of a couple of hundred
men of the 44th under Bellairs.

Russians Repulsed.

Thus in less than an hour SoimonofF's
great effort was repulsed; he himself
was slain, and his men driven off the
field. For this portion of the loth
Russian division never regained cohe-
sion as a formed military force. It was
no mere defeat but an absolute over-
throw, in which regiments melted away
and the whole force was ruined. Many
excuses have been offered for their
want of success : the dense mist giving
exaggerated value to the handful that
faced them, they perhaps thought the
enterprise too difficult.

It is also certain that the English fire
was murderously effective upon these
compact columns of attack ; some were
absolutely decimated, others lost nearly
all their officers, and all were so shat-
tered and disorganized that no part of
them returned to the fight. They ought,
nevertheless, to have done better ; with
such greatly superior forces, backed
up by the incessant fire of a formidable
artillery, success would probably have
awaited bolder and braver men.

Meanwhile a portion of Pauloff's di-
vision had arrived by a shorter and
more direct road, while the rest had
circled round after Soimonoff. Some
of these people of Pauloff's were at

once attracted by the Sandbag Battery,
and, soon taking it from the sergeants'
guard that held it, made this hollow
vantage-ground their own. A mass of
men, three great columns, supported
this attack, and Pennefather sent Gen-
eral Adams against them with the 41st
Regiment.

He went forward in extetided order
with a wide front of fire, and the Rus-
sians soon fell away ; those in the bat-
tery evacuated it ; the columns support-
ing broke and dropped piecemeal into
the valley. In this splendid affair 500
men disposed of 4,000. Again, at the
Barrier, which the rest of Pauloff's
men approached with great determina-
tion, a small body, the wing of the 30th
Regiment under Colonel Mauleverer,
achieved an equal triumph — that of
200 over 2,000. Here it was the British
bayonet that told, for the men's fire-
locks were soaking wet and the caps
would not explode.

Daring Bravery.

But Mauleverer trusted to the cold
steel. Officers leapt down daringly in
among the Russians; men followed at
the charge : the head of the leading
column was struck with such impetus
that it turned in hasty retreat, causing
hopeless confusion in the columns be-
hind, and all fled, a broken throng of
fugitives, hundreds upon hundreds,
chased by seven or eight score.

This ended the first Russian on-
.slaught. Half Soimonoff 's division was
beaten out of sight ; 6,000 men were lost
to Pauloff. At least 15,000 out of 25,-
000 were "extirpated," as the Russians
admit in their official accounts, and
this by no superior generalship but by
the dogged valor, the undismayed re-

INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF.

39S

sistance> of just 3,500 Englishmen. It
was a good omen for the issue of the
day's fighting, but the end was not yet,
and a further terrible stress was still
to be imposed upon the overmatched
troops.

Eager for Battle.

Supports, such as they were, now be-
gun to arrive. The alarm had spread
across the upland rousing every soul, and
in every camp near and far the assem-
bly sounded, men rushed to arms, half-
dressed, fasting, eager only to hurry
into the fight. Some of the Light Divi-
sion, as we have seen, had been already
engaged. General Codrington with the
rest was in battle array, holding the
Victoria Ridge with scanty forces. The
Guards' brigade, 1,200 men, under the
Duke of Cambridge, was approaching,
700 already close to the Home Ridge ;
the 4th division under Sir George Cath-
cart, 2,000 strong, was also near at hand.
These, with the field-batteries, raised the
reinforcements to a total of 4, 700 men.

Two French battalions had been des-
patched to support Pennefather, al-
though from some misunderstanding
they were not utilized, and Bosquet,
who had come up with them, returned
to the Eastern Heights, where he was
still menaced by Gortschakoff. It was
not until much later in the day that
General Bosquet realized that the Rus-
sians in front of him were only pre-
tending to attack, and then he hurried
with substantial forces to Mount Inker-
man. But until then he allowed him-
self to be tied, ineffectively to the
wrong place, giving no assistance in
the main fight and certain to be "rolled
up" in his turn if that fight ended dis-
astrously for the English.

General Dannenberg had now as-
sumed the chief command, and, un-
daunted by the first failure, he set
about organizing a fresh attack. He
had at his disposal 19,000 fresh and un-
touched troops : SoimonoflF's reserves
and Pauloff's regiments which had
come round by the lower road. The
latter, 10,000 strong, were sent against
the English centre and right, their first
task being the recapture of the Sand-
bag Battery. General Adams was still
here with his 700 men of the 41st Re-
giment, and he made a firm stand ;
4,000 men attacked him again and
again with far more courage and per-
sistence than any Russian troops had
yet shown ; and at last, still fighting
inch by inch Adams fell back, leaving
the battery in the enemy's hands.

Taken and Re-taken.

Now the Guards came up under the
Duke of Cambridge, and replacing
Adams, went forward with a rush and
recovered it, only to find it a useless
possession. It was presently vacated
by one lot, re-entered by the Russians,
recaptured by another lot, and then
again the Russians, imagining it to be
an essential feature in the allied de-
fence, concentrated their force to again
attack it. Once more they took it,
once more the Guards returned, and
with irresistible energy drove them out.
Thus the tide of battle ebbed and flowed
around this empty carcase, and to nei-
ther side did its possession mean loss or
gain.

The 4th division, under Sir George
Cathcart, had now arrived upon the
ground. He had just 2,000 men, and
of these four-fifths were speedily distri-
buted in fragments to stiffen and s::p

400

INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF.

port Pennefather's fighting line just
where he thought they were most re-
quired. With the small residue, not
400 men, Cathcart was ready for any
adventure. There was a gap in the
Bnglish line between Pennefather's
right and the Guards struggling about
the Sandbag Battery, and this opening
Cathcart was desired to fill. The order
came direct from Lord Raglan, who
was now in the field ; but Cathcart
thought fit to act otherwise, believing
that there was an opening for a deci-
sive flank attack.

Rushed Like a Torrent.

He meant to strike at the left of the
Russians, and leaving his vantage
ground above he descended the steep
slopes with his 400 men. The offen-
sive movement was taken up by the
troops nearest him — Guards, 20th, 95th.
All the men gathered about the Sandbag
Battery rushed headlong like a torrent
down the hillside, and following up
this fancied advantage, jeopardized
the battle. For the gap which Cath-
cart had been ordered to occupy be-
came filled by a heavy column of Rus
sians, who took their enemy in reverse
and cut them completely off".

" I fear we are in a mess," said Cath-
cart, taking in the situation; and al-
mosT directly afterwards he was shot
through the heart. Only by a desper-
ate effort, a series of personal hand-to-
hand combats fought by small units
courageously led by junior officers,
even by non-combatant doctors, did the
English regain touch with their own
people. They were aided, too, by the
opportune advance of a French regi-
ment, which took the interposing Rus-
sians in flank and drove them off". But

if this mad adventure of Cathcar'^.'s es-
caped the most disastrous consequences,
its eff"ect, nevertheless, was to still fur-
ther break up and disseminate the al-
ready weakened and half-spent forces of
the allies.

Forced Slowly Back.

All this time, Dannenberg had been
pressing hard upon the allied centre.
Here his attacking column met first
Mauleverer with his victorious army of
the 30th, and forced them slowly and
reluctantly back, but was itself repulsed
by a fresh army of the Rifle Brigade and
driven down into the Quarry. Thence it
again emerged, reinforced, and moved
by the right against the Home Ridge.
It was in these advances that they pene-
trated the gap just mentioned and got
upon the rear of Cathcart and the
Guards.

But the westernmost columns were
charged by a portion of the 4th divi-
sion, the 2ist and 63d regiments, over-
thrown and pursued ; while the Russian
attack on the right of the Home Ridge
was met by General Goldie with the
20th and 57th, also of the 4th division.
Both these regiments were notable
fighters, with very glorious traditions:
the "Minden yell" of the 20th had
stricken fear into its enemies for more
than a century, and the 57th " Die
Hards" had gained that imperishable
title of honor at Albuera. "Fifty-
seventh, remember Albuera!" was a
battle-cry that sent them with terrible
fury into the Russian ranks, and these
two gallant regiments hunted their
game right down into the Quarry.

Once more the most strenuous efforts
of the enemy had failed, with what a
cost of heroic lives history still proudly

INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF.

401

tells. Dannenberg, however, if dis-
heartened was not yet hopeless. He
knew that the allies were hard pressed ;
if he himself had suffered so had they,
and more severely. He had still 10,000
men in hand; many of them, although
once worsted, were still not disorgan-
ized or disheartened, and his reserves
—9,000 more — were still intact, while
guns a hundred in number held the
mastery from Shell Hill.

Half were Lost.

Of the English forces, never more
than 5,000 strong, half had been de-
stroyed or annulled. True, the French
had come upon the ground with two
battalions, 1,600 men ; but Bosquet,
with the main part of his command,
was still a long way behind. Dannen-
berg resolved to make another and more
determined attack upon the centre of
the English position, aiming for that
Home Ridge, as it was called, which
was the inner and last line of the allied
defence.

The Russians came on with a strength
of 6,000 assailants, formed, as before,
in a dense column of attack. One led
the van, the main trunk followed,
flanked by the others, and all coming
up out of the now memorable Quarry
Ravine. Pennefather had some 500 or
600 to hold the ridge, remnants of the
55th, 95 th, and 77th regiments, and a
French battalion of the ytli Leger, with
a small detachment of Zonaves.

These were very inadequate forces,
and the Russians, pushing home with
more heart than they had hitherto
shown, crowned the crest and broke
over the inner slopes of the ridge. The
7th Leger had not much stomach for
the fight, but were pushed on by the
26

Zouaves and the men v^f the 77th, still
led by the intrepid E^erton, By this
time the main trunk column of the
enemy had swept over the Barrier at
the head of the Quarry, and the small
force of defenders retired sullenly be-
hind the Home Ridge.

Critical Moment.

Now the position seemed in immi-
nent danger, and this was, perhaps, the
most critical period in the battle. But
the advance of the Russians, although
in overwhelming strength, was checked
by another daring charge — that of a
handful of the 55th (thirty, no more)
under Colonel Danberry, who went
headlong into the thick of one of the
rearmost Russian battalions. This small
body of heroes tore through the mass
by sheer strength, as if it were a foot-ball
Scrooge, using their bayonets and their
butt-ends, even their fists, fighting
desperately till they "cleft a path
through the battalion from flank to
flank, and came out at last in open
air on the east of the great trunk
column."

The noise of tumult in the rear and
the vague sense of discomfiture and de-
feat shook the leading assailants, and
the Russians first halted irresolute then
turned and retired. At this time, too,
one of the flanking columns, moving
up on the Russian right, encountered
the 2 1 St and 63d regiments, and was
promptly charged and driven back by
these regiments, which re-possessed
themselves of the Barrier and held it.
Then the Russian left column, worsted
by British artillery and the French 7th
Leger, also retired.

It was now but little past 9 A.M., and
as yet the battle, although going against

402

INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF.

the Russians, was still neither lost nor
won. They still held the ascendant
on Shell Hill, still had their reserves.
Lord Raglan, on the other hand, could
not draw upon a single man, and Bos-
quet's main force was still a long way
off. Now, too, the French got into
some difficulty upon the right above
the Sandbag Battery, and were in im-
minent danger of defeat. Moreover,
the Russians made a fresh effort against
the Barrier, coming up once again out
of the Quarry. The Barrier was held
by the 21st and 63d, but the stress put
upon them was great, and Pennefather
sent on such scanty support as he could
spare. Great slaughter ensued in this
conflict. General Goldie, who was now
in command of the 4th division, was
killed, and other valuable officers.

Allied Guns.

The Russian artillery did deadly mis-
chief, but now, by Lord Raglan's unerr-
ing foresight, it was to be met and over-
matched by the allied guns. At an
earlier hour of the morning he had sent
back to the Siege Park for a couple of
eighteen-pounders, guns that in the
enormous development of artillery sci-
ence we should think nothing of nowa-
days, but which at Inkerman were far
superior to the Russian field-batteries.
So eager were the gunners that these
two famous eighteen-pounders were
dragged up to the front with ' ' man har-
ness,' ' by some hundred and fifty artil-
lerymen and a crowd of eager officers.

The guns were placed in a command-
ing position and worked splendidly
under the very eyes and with the warm
approval of Lord Raglan. They soon
established a superiority of fire and
spread such havoc and confusion among

the Russian batteries on Shell Hill that
the power of the latter began to wane.
Victory, so long in the balance, was at
last inclining to the side of the allies.

Issue in Danger.

Still the battle was not won. If the
Russians did not renew their attacks,
they still held their ground ; and Bos-
quet, coming up presently with his
whole strength, made a false move
which nearly jeopardized the issue.
The French general, having with him
3,000 infantry and 24 guns, " hankering
after a flank attack," reached forward
on the far right beyond the Sandbag
Battery and the spurs adjoining. Here
he fell among the enemy, found himself
threatened to right and to left and in
front, and, realizing his peril, hastily
withdrew. Happily, the Russians did
not seize the undoubted advantage that
mere accident had brought them by
Bosquet's injudicious and hazardous
advance. Had they gathered strength
for a fresh and vigorous onslaught upon
the English right, they might perhaps
have turned the scale against them.

The French were clearly discomfited
and out of heart for a time. Then as
the Russians made no forward move,
Bosquet regained confidence ; he threw
forward his Zouaves and Algerines, and
these active troops came upon some
Russians which were slowly climbing
the slopes, and hurled them down again
in great disorder. Our old friends the
6th and 7th French regiments, the earli-
est on the field, advanced along the
post-road towards the Barrier, where
they were covered by the English.
This, briefly told, was the sum total of
the French performances at the battle
of Inkerman.

INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF.

405

It is well known to all who study war
that, when the crisis of a battle comes,
victory is for him who has the best dis-
posable reserve in hand. Of the forces
now engaged the French alone were in
this happy situation ; the English were
all but exhausted. Lord Raglan, as
has been said, had not a spare man.
As for the Russians, Gortschakoff 's su-
pineness had robbed his comrades of the
assistance of 20,000 men, and the gen-
eral-in-chief, Mentschikoff, although
close at hand on the field, did not see fit
to bring up the reinforcements from the
garrison of the town.

"What Can I Do?"
But now Marshal Canrobert, never a
daring leader, was moved to desist from
the fight. When he learnt that the
English were all but spent, he would
do nothing more, although he had a
very large force of all arms now up and
well in hand. No arguments, no ap-
peals of lyord Raglan's would move
him. "What can I — what can I do?"
he asked querulously; "the Russians
are everywhere." Had it been left to
the French, the field would have been
abandoned to the Russians, who were
still in possession of the greater part of
Mount Inkerman, and the battle would
have been practically drawn.

On the other hand, a vigorous on-
slaught by the still fresh and untouched
French might have carried the Flagstaff
bastion and led to the capture of Sebas-
topol itself. But Canrobert was not the
man to take so great a risk or jeopardize
so many lives. It was left to Haines,
who still held the Barrier, to move up
against Shell Hill. Lord West sec-
onded him in this bold endeavor, a
young lieutenant of the 77th, Acton by

name, also went on with a mere hand-
ful, and Colonel Horsford came on in
support with the remnant of the Rifle
Brigade. All this time, too, Lord Rag-
lan's i8-pounders were dealing death
and destruction among the Russian bat-
teries ; and at last Dannenberg, under
stress of this "murderous fire" — they
are his own words — decided to limber
up his guns and retire his whole force.
This, in fact, was done, and about i
p. M. the Russians admitted defeat.

Heavy Russian Losses.

If in this grand contest the allies were
greatly outnumbered by the Russians,
the latter suffered the most, their losses
being four times as great as those of the
victors. They had 12,000 killed and
wounded, a large proportion of them
left dead upon the field, among them
256 officers. The English lost 597
killed, 39 of them ofiicers, and 3 general
officers; 1,760 men and 91 officers
wounded. The French lost 13 officers
and 1 30 men killed and 36 officers and
750 men wounded.

These figures show plainly on whom
the brunt of the fighting fell, and the
enormous losses of the Russians were
mainly due to the density of their col-
umns of attack and the superiority of
English musketry and artillery fire. A
very large part of the English infantry
at Inkerman were armed with the new-
fangled Minie rifle, and what powerful
aid was affi)rded by the two 1 8-pounder
guns has been already shown in the
course of the narrative.

In this Crimean war the key to the
situation was the renowned fortress of
Sebastopol, and to capture this was the
object of the allied armies of England,
France and Turkey. These took up a

404

INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF.

position near Balaclava, located south
of Sebastopol, and began the siege of
that vast fortress. The Russians made
repeated attempts, with overwhelming
masses of troops, to force the allied
position, which led to the bloody bat-
tle of Inkerman, already described.

Two Main Outposts.

There were two main keys or outposts
to the fortresses, one being the Redan
and the other the MalakoflP. These were
provided with all the necessary means
for a thorough defence. As the siege
dragged on for many months the main
efforts of the allied commanders finally
were directed to closing in upon the
defences of the town, and as a first step
it was necessary to gait? possession of
the various outworks and advanced
posts. These were the White Works,
the Mamelon, the Quarries, the Mala-
koflf, and the Redan. It was on June
the 6th that a fresh bombardment was
undertaken in order to reduce them,
both the English and French guns be-
ing actively engaged — to the number of
544. The Mamelon was soon crushed,
the White Works greatly damaged, and
only the Malakoflf was able to return
the fire at the close of the day.

The cannonade was continued all
through next day and towards dusk.
Bosquet sent forward two brigades, and
took possession of the White Works
without serious opposition, which dur-
ing the night were incorporated with
the French trenches. On that same
evening, June 7th, about 5.30, three
French columns moved out boldly to
attack the Mamelon, headed by a brave
colonel, Brancion, who was slain just
as his men triumphantly crowned the
pa-rapet Another column of Turcos

took the works by the rear, and this
combined attack was for a time per-
fectly successful ; then the Russians,
reinforced, made a counter-attack, re-
took the Mamelon, held it for a time,
and were in their turn again expelled.
The entry of the French into this
works was the signal for an attack upon
the Quarries, and this tough job was
entrusted to detachments of the 2d and
Ivight Divisions, the whole under Colo-
nel Shirley. These Quarries were soon
carried, but, being at the rear, they were
searched through and through by the
enemy's guns, and proved untenable
until the Russians came out and were
mixed with the assailants. Then the
fight rolled back and forward, the vic-
tory now inclining to this side, now to
that. In the end, however, when dawn
broke, the whole of the works the
allies had attacked remained in their
hands.

Awaiting Final Attack.

This substantial triumph g/eatly
elated the allies. All who were en-
gaged in it hoped that a turn was ap-
proaching in this wearisome siege, and
impatiently awaited the final attack,
which must now, surely, be soon made.
This, indeed, was the fixed intention of
the allied generals, and in the days fol-
lowing the last-named captures, meas-
ures were concerted to assault the inner
and chief works of the town.

Even now the Emperor Napoleon
persisted in advising field-operations,
and continued to telegraph orders to
Pelissier, the French commander, to
that effect. The sturdy French general
protested, pleading how impossible it
was for him to exercise his command
*'at the end, sometimes paralyzing, of

INKERMAN AND fHE MALAKOFF.

405

an electric wire" — and still went his
own way. To the emperor's last per-
emptory message he replied: "To-
morrow, at daybreak, in concert with
the English, I attack the Redan, the
MalakofF, and their dependent batteries.
I am full of hope.' '

Bad Generalship.

Yet this great attack was foredoomed
to failure. Everything went wrong,
especially with the French commander-
in-chief. It is now believed that Pelis-
sier, although outwardly firm, was
greatly harassed in mind b)- the con-
tinual interference of the emperor.
Whatever the reason, he made mistake
upon mistake. In the first place, he
removed Bosquet from the command of
the troops that were to attack the Mala-
koflf, and substituted a general but lately
landed, and quite ignorant of the ground,
which Bosquet knew, as the French
say, ' ' as well as his own pocket.' '

In the second place, although it had
been arranged with Lord Raglan that
the attack should be preceded by a Iwo
days' cannonade, the fire of the 17th of
June was not resumed by the French on
the fatal morning of the i8th, and Pelis-
sier suddenly decided to attack at day-
break without it. This, the anniversary
of Waterloo, when two old foes now
were to figlit side by side, had been
chosen on purpose, and yet it was to be
associated with disaster. The French
columns intended to assault the Mala-
kofF found themselves mixed up and
confused in the trenches. It was a
brilliant starlight night, and the Rus-
sians, seeing them plainly, brought up
all their strength to resist.

The assailants, when they moved
forward, encountered fierce opposition

from dogged men posted behind works
rapidly repaired, and the French pre-
sently retreated with considerable loss.
The same misfortune met the English,
for Lord Raglan, although aware of the
French failure, felt bound to also at-
tack. His men never got near the
Redan — they were swept away in hun-
dreds, as they crossed the open, by a
storm of grape. Their leaders were
killed, General Campbell and gallant
Lacy Yea, and the remnant fell back
disheartened.

Only at one point, down by the Creek
batterv, that fiery leader Sir William
Eyre had penetrated the defence and
entered the town. But he was wounded
himself, and the lodgment made was
relinquished, failing proper support.

Disaster Killed Hira.

From this grievous disaster Lord
Raglan, who was already in failing
health, never recovered. The noble
English soldier, who had long borne
unmerited contumely in proud silence,
content to do his duty to the utmost of
his power, was now heartbroken at this
defeat, and sinking gradually, he died
ten days after the 1 8th of June. How
greatly his fine character had impressed
all who were joined with him in this
chanceful campaign was shown by
Pelissier's great grief at his death. The
rugged, stern, intractable Frenchman
had from the first evinced the highest
respect and affection for his English
colleague ; and it is said that when
Lord Raglan was no more. General
Pelissier came and "stood by his bed-
side for upwards of an hour, crying
like a child."

But although Pelissier could yield
thus to his generous emotions, he never

i06

inkErman and the malakoff.

weakened on the business in hand.
Defeat only redoubled his dogged de-
termination to succeed in his own way.
This indomitable attitude at last won
him the respect of his hitherto hostile
superiors, and even the Emperor Na-
poleon, surrendered his beloved projects,
admitted that now every effort must be
concentrated on the siege. The affront
of failure must now be wiped out —
speedily, if possible, but at any rate
surely, j

Heaps of Dead.

Progress was still slow, but still the
force crept steadily forward, until it ap-
proached in some places the very foot
of the enemy's defences, while, without
intermission, the war of weapons con-
tinued. The English had established
an overwhelming superiority of fire,
and their guns worked frightful havoc
in the garrison. "Losses!" said a
young Russian officer who had accom-
panied a flag of truce ; "you don't know
what the word means. You should see
our batteries : th e dead lie there in heaps
and heaps." The Russians during the
last bombardment lost from i,ooo to
1,500 a day.

Yet two more months passed, and the
allies were still outside. Neither Pelis-
sier, with his strong and masterful spirit,
nor Sir James Simpson, Lord Raglan's
successor — a much poorer creature —
was disposed to risk failure again by
another premature or ill-considered at-
tack; and while they waited to make
all sure, the enemy took his fate in both
hands, and sought to relieve the nearly
ruined fortress by one last great counter-
stroke.

The battle of the Tchernaya, or of
Tractir Bridge, fought on the 15 th of

August, was a despairing but most vig-
orous attack upon the French right
flank, where the newly arrived Italian
— or, more exactly, Sardinian — allies
were also posted. Thirty thousand
Russians, under Generals Read and
Liprandi, with a reserve of 19,000 more
infantry, the whole supported by cav-
alry and a numerous artillery, came on
at daylight, but attacked too soon the
heights held strongly by the French, and
were driven back with great slaughter.
The Sardinians also fought well, and
some horse artillery also took part in
the fight.

Hope Abandoned.

The outcome still tarried, but all
hope of holding Sebastopol was at an
end. Since the commencement of the
Crimean campaign the Russians had
lost many thousands of men in the
fortress and in the field, and their con-
dition was nearly desperate. Prepara-
tions to evacuate the city were at last be
gun — the great bridge of retreat across
the harbor, barricades and obstacles in
the streets and approaches. Yet Prince
Gortschakoff still hesitated, and wished
at the eleventh hour to prolong the de-
fence in spite of the tremendous sacri-
fice it would entail.

But now, at last, opportunity was
ripe ; the French most advanced trench
was within five-and-twenty yards of the
Malakoff, and the hour of attack was at
hand.

Once more, and for the last time, the
guns re-opened fire and blazed away
incessantly on the 6th and 7th of Sep-
tember, doing, as usual, infinite injury,
but in the early morning of the 8th the
Russians stood ready, their reserves in
hand, their guns loaded with grape. It

INKERMAN AND THE MAlyAKOFF.

40?

was not Pelissier's intention to attack
the Malakoff — the principal point — be-
fore noon. He had observed that at
that hour the old guards were relieved
by the new, but that the one marched
out of the works before the others re-
placed.

G-allant MacMahon.

This was the plan which the French
general hugged so closely to his heart
that, as he himself put it, he would not
whisper it to his pillow. The general
control of the attack was placed under
Bosquet, but the actual assault of the
Malakoff was entrusted to MacMahon,
that fine soldier who, years later, be-
came President of the French Republic.
Other troops filled in the line towards
the Redan, where the English, under
General Windham, were to come into
play; but theirs was essentially an in-
ferior and subsidiary role, for under no
circumstances should they have attacked
the Redan alone. Further subordinate
moves were to be made by the French
on Flagstafi" Bastion, while the Central
Bastion was to be dealt with by the
Sardinians.

At noon exactly, MacMahon's first
brigade crossed the open at a run, and
found the Malakoff nearly empty; but
then the Russian relief came up, and
a fierce hand-to-hand stru^grle began.
Every traverse, every coign of vantage,
was taken and retaken, the Russians
fighting with desperate courage ; and it
was not until the French had broken
into the work by its eastern face that
victory inclined to their side. Still, the
conflict was maintained imtil late in
the afternoon, the Russians brin^ine
up every reserve, but all to no purpose,

and finally the tricolor waved over the
Malakoff. The key to the fortress was
won.

Elsewhere fate had been adverse. The
French columns on the left of the prin-
cipal attack had not greatly prospered,
while the English at the Redan had dis-
tinctly failed. No doubt they were more
or less doomed to failure from the first;
for the Russians retiring from the Mal-
akoff, swarmed into the Redan and soon
filled it with vast numbers, while the
English assailants at best were few.
Yet they went up undaunted; many
boldly climbed over the huge parapet,
and for some time maintained a firm
front inside.

Fall of the Citadel.

Unfortunately, support in sufficient
strength was not promptly sent for-
ward, and General Windham went back
in search of them. This ill-advised step
left the combatants, already hardly
pressed, without the guidance of any
leader of rank, and the unequal contest
was not long maintained. Had the
French, it is said, turned the Russian
gnus they had captured in the Mala-
koff on to the Redan, that work would
have been quite untenable, so that its
assault — except, perhaps, as a feint —
was really unnecessary.

Thus Sebastopol, or its principal
part —smoking ruins and an empty shell
— fell at last to the allied forces of
French and English. Probably the
assault upon the Malakoff, if it had not
been successful, would not have been
renewed; for everybody agreed that if
the fortress was not taken before the
second winter arrived, it would have
been necessary to raise the siege.

CHAPTER XXVI.

Overthrow of the French Empire at Sedan.

AR between France and Ger-
many had been declared on
19th July, 1870 ; and as early
as August 2nd — so swiftly had been
accomplished the work of mobilizing
the hosts of the Fatherland as the
" Watch on the Rhine "—King William
of Prussia, now in his seventieth year,
took command of the united German
armies at Mayence.

These armies were three in number —
the First, on the right, consisting of
60,000 men, commanded by General
Steinmetz ; the Second, in the centre,
194,000 strong, under the "Red Prince"
(Frederick Charles); and the Third, on
the left, 130,000, led by the Crown
Prince of Prussia. An additional 100,-
000 men, still at the disposal of any of
these three hosts, brought up the Ger-
man field-army to a figure of 484,000.

Altogether, Germany now had under
arms no fewer than i, 183,389 men, with
250,373 horses ! Many of these, how-
ever, had to remain behind in the
Fatherland itself to man the fortresses
and maintain communication with the
front ; while others belonged to the cat-
egory of supplementary troops, or re-
serves, held ready to supply the gaps
made in the fighting field-army of nearly
half a million men, as above.

The corresponding field array of the
French was considerably inferior in
point of numbers (336,500), equipment,
organization, and discipline — in all re-
spects, in fact, save that of the chasse-
408

pot rifle, which was decidedly superiof
to the German needle-gun. The French,
too, had a large number of mitrailleuses,
or machine-guns, which ground out the
bullets at what they deemed would be
a terribly murderous rate. But these
instruments of wholesale massacre did
not, in the end, come up to the French
expectation of them; while, on the
other hand, the Prussian field-artillery
proved itself to be far superior in all
respects to that of the French.

Finally, the Germans had a plan ; the
French had none. Profound forethought
was stamped on everything the Ger-
mans did ; but, on the other hand, it
was stamped on scarcely one single act
of their enemies. The Germans had at
their head a man of design, while the
corresponding director of the French
was only a " Man of Destiny."

The first serious battle was fought on
the 4th August at Wissemburg, when
the Crown Prince fell upon the French
and smote them hip and thigh, follow-
ing up this victory, on the 6th, at
Worth, when he again assaulted and
tumbled back the overweening hosts of
MacMahon in hideous ruin, partly on
Strasburg, partly on Chalons. On this
same day Steinmetz, on the right, car-
ried the Spicheren Heights with terrific
carnage, and all but annihilated Fros-
sard's Corps.

It was now the turn of the " Red
Prince," in the centre, to strike in ; and
this he did on the i6th, with glorious

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE-

40»

success, at Mars-la-Tour, when, against
fivefold odds, he hung on to Marshal
Bazaine's army and thwarted it in its
attempt to escape from Metz. Two
days later, the i8th, on very nearly the
same ground, there was fought the
bloodiest battle of all the war, that of
Gravelotte-St. Privat — which resulted
in the hurling back of Bazaine into
Metz, there to be cooped up and belea-
guered by Prince Frederick Charles and
forced to capitulate within a couple of
months.

The Crisis Near.

Moltke's immediate object was now
to dispose of MacMahon, who had
retired on Chalons— thence either to fall
back on Paris, or march by a circuitous
route to the relief of Bazaine. Which
course he meant to adopt the German
leaders did not as yet know, though it
was of life-and-death importance that
they should find out with the least pos-
sible delay. Meanwhile the Crown
Prince of Prussia with the Third Army
continued his pursuit of MacMahon, as if
towards Chalons ; and with him co-
operated the Crown Prince of Saxony
at the head of a Fourth Army (of the
Meuse), which had now been created
out of such of the "Red Prince's"
forces (First and Second Armies) as
were not required for the investment of
Metz.

For several days the pursuing Ger-
mans continued their rapid march to
the west, but on the 25th, word reached
Moltke, the real directing head of the
campaign, that McMahon in hot haste
had evacuated the camp at Chalons,
and ■ marched to the north-west on
Rheims, with the apparent intention of
doubling back on Metz. Meanwhile,

until his intention should become un-
mistakably plain, the German leaders
did no more than give a right half-front
direction to the enormous host of about
200,000 men, which, on an irregular
frontage of nearly fifty miles, was
sweeping forward to the west, Paris-
wards.

For three more days this altered
movement was continued, and then
" Right-hand wheel ! " again resounded
all along the enormous line, there being
now executed by the German armies
one of the grandest feats of strategical
combination that had ever been per-
formed. The German cavalry had al-
ready done wonders of scouting, but it
was believed that Moltke's knowledge
of the altered movements of MacMahon
was now mainly derived from Paris
telegrams to a London newspaper,
which were promptly re-communicated,
by way of Berlin, to the German head-
quarters— a proof of how the revelations
of the war-correspondent — whom Lord
Woolsey once denounced as the "curse
of modern armies" — may sometimes
affect the whole course of a campaign.

On the Double Quick.
Not long was it now before the heads
of the German columns were within
striking distance of MacMahon, who
was hastening eastward to cross the
Meuse in the direction of Metz ; but
his movement became ever more flurried
in proportion to the swiftness where-
with the Germans deployed their armies
on a frontage parallel to his flank line
of march. Alternately obeying his
own military instincts and the political
orders from Paris, MacMahon dodged
and doubled in the basin of the Meuse
like a breathless and bewildered hare.

410

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

On the 30th of August an action at
Beaumont proved to the French the
jtter hopelessness of their attempting
to pursue their Metz-ward march. As
^he battle oj Mars-la-Tour had com-

WII^LIAM I. — EMPEROR OF GERMANY.

pelled Bazaine to relinquish his plan of
reaching Verden and to fight for his
life with his back to Metz, so the victory
of Beaumont proved to MacMahon that
his only resource left was to abandon
the attempt to reach the virgin fortress
on the Moselle, and concentrate his de-
moralized and rabble army around the
frontier stronghold of Sedan.

As Sedan had been the birthplace of
one of the greatest of French marshals,

Turenne, who had unrighteously seized
Strasburg and the left bank of the
Rhine for France, and been the scourge
of Germany, it was peculiarly fitting
that it should now become the scene of
the battle which wa=
to restore Alsace-Lor
raine to the Father-
land, and destroy the
Continental supremacy
of the Gauls.

Standing on the
right bank of the
Meuse, in a projecting
angle between I/Uxem-
burg and Belgian ter-
ritory, the fortressed
old town of Sedan is
surrounded by mea-
dows, gardens, culti-
vated fields, ravines,
and wet-ditches ; while
the citadel, or castle,
rises on a clifi"-like
eminence to the south-
west of the place.
Away in the distance
towards the Belgian
.. frontier stretch the
x^'' Ardennes — that ver-
dant forest of Arden
in which Touchstone
jested and Orlando
loved, but which was now to become
the scene of a great tragedy — of one of
the most crushing disasters that ever
befell a mighty nation.

In retiring on Sedan, MacMahon had
not intended to oflfer battle there, but
simply to give his troops a short rest,
of which they stood so much in need,
and provide them with food and • am-
munition. These troops were worn out
with their efforts by day and night and

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

411

continuous rain ; while their apparently
aimless marching to and fro had under-
mined fheir confidence in their leaders,
and a series of defeats had shaken their
own self-trust. Thousands of fugitives,
crying for bread, crowded round the
wagons as they made their way to the
little fortress which had thus so sud
denly become the goal of a vast army.

Mouse in the Trap.

On the 31st of August, after making
all his strategic preparations, and tak-
ing a general survey of the situation,
Moltke quietly remarked with a
chuckle : " The trap is now closed,
and the mouse is in it." That night
headquarters were at Vendresse, a town-
let about fourteen miles to the south of
Sedan ; and early on the morning of
the 1st of September, King William
and his brilliant suite of generals,
princes, and foreign officers were up
and away to the hill-slope of Fresnois,
which commands a view of the town
and valley of Sedan as a box on the
grand tiers of an opera does that of the
stage. Bismarck, Moltke, and Roon —
the king's mighty men of wisdom and
valor — were also in his majesty's suite.
"Why," remarked a Priissian soldier
on seeing this brilliant assemblage take
up its position on the brow of the hill
and produce its field-glasses, "why, all
this is just the same as at our autumn
manoeuvres ! "

The morning had broken in a thick
fog, under cover of which the Germans
had marched up to their various posi-
tions, some of the columns having
moved off at midnight ; and by the
time King William had taken his stand
on the Fresnois height, a little to the
east of where his son, the Crown Prince,

had similarly posted himself in order to
direct the movements of the Third
Army, the hot September sun had
raised the curtain of the mist and dis-
closed the progress which had already
been made by the stupendous battle
drama.

This had been opened by the Bava-
rianSj under Von der Tann, who, cross-
ing the Meuse on pontoons, advanced
to attack the village of Bazeilles, a sub-
urb of Sedan, outside the fortifications
on the south-east. The Bavarians had
already shelled this suburb on the pre-
vious evening so severely that pillars
of flame and smoke shot up into the
air during the night. In no other battle
of the war was such fighting ferocity
shown as in this hand-to-hand struggle
for Bazeilles. For the Bavarians were
met with such stubborn resistance on
the part of the French marine infantry
posted there, that they were twice com-
pelled to abandon their hold on that
place by vehement counter-assaults.

Women in the Fight.

The inhabitants of the village, too—
women as well as men — joined in its
defence by firing out of the houses and
cellars on the Bavarians as they pressed
onward, and by perpetrating most re-
volting barbarities on the wounded
Germans left behind when their com-
rades had repeatedly to retreat. The
Bavarians, on their part, were so dread-
fully embittered and enraged by these
things that they gave no quarter, act-
ing with relentless rigor towards all the
inhabitants found with arms in their
hands or caught in the act of inflicting
cruelties on the wounded.

The struggle for the village became
one of mntual annihilation, Hou.se by

412

OVERTHROW Oh THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

house and street by street had to be
stormed and taken by the Bavarians,
and the only way of ejecting the enemy
from some of these massively built and
strongly garrisoned buildings was by

NAPOI<EON III. — EMPEROR OF FRANCE

employing pioneers to breach the walls
in the rear or from the side streets and
throw in lighted torches. Notwith-
standing all the desperate bravery of
the Bavarians, the battle fluctuated for
nearly six hours in the streets of Baze-
illes, fresh troops, or freshly rallied
ones, being constantly thrown by both
sides into the seething fight. It was not
till about lo A. M. that the Bavarians
had acquired full possession of the
villa-"-'* itself — now reduced to mere
-tcaos of ruins ; but as the combat died

away in the streets it was continued
with equal desperation in the adjacent
gardens on the north, where the French
made a fresh stand, defending their
ground with the most admirable valor.
Bazeilles was certainly the
scene of some of the most shock-
ing atrocities which had been
perpetrated by European soldiers
since the siege and sack of Bada-
joz by the victorious troops of
Wellington, and the storming of
Lucknow by the infuriated High-
landers of Sir Colin Campbell.
But it must be remembered that
in all three cases the blood of the
assailants had been roused to
almost tiger-heat by barbarous
provocation from the other side.
Simultaneously with the san-
guinary struggle for Bazeilles^
the battle had also been devel-
oping at other points. Advanc-
ing on the right of the Bavari-
ans the Crown Prince of Saxony
— afterwards King Albert —
pushed forward towards Givonne
with intent to complete the en-
vironment of the French on this
side. In order to facilitate theii
marching, the Saxon soldiers had
been ordered to lay aside their knapsacks,
and by great eflforts they succeeded in
reaching their appointed section of the
ring of investment early in the day, tak
ing the enemy completely by surprise,
and hurling them back in confusion both
at La Moncelle and Daigny. At the lat-
ter place the French, soon after 7 A. m.,
made two offensive sallies with their
renowned Zouaves and dreaded Turcos
belonging to the ist Corps, but were
beaten back by a crushing artillery and
needle-gun fire.

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

415

For some time the scales of battle
hung uncertain on this portion of the
field, but reinforcements coming up to
the Saxons, the latter made an impetu-
ous push across the valley, capturing
three guns and three mitrailleuses from
the French after half an hour's street-
fighting in the village (Daigny), which
was now finally wrested from the en-
emy. Soon after this the Saxon right
was rendered secure by the advance of
the Prussian guards, under Prince Au-
gust of Wurtemburg, who had made a
wide detour to reach their objective,
Givonne.

The French Scattered.

A considerable body of French cav-
alry and numerous trains were seen by
the Guards on the opposite side of the
valley. These ofiered the corps artillery
of the Guards an immediate target for
its fire ; and scarcely had the first shells
fallen among the French columns when
the entire mass scattered in all direc-
tions in the greatest confusion, leaving
everywhere traces of a complete panic.
The cavalry of the Guard was sent by a
detour to the right, to bar the road to
Belgium, and also establish touch with
the Crown Prince's (Third) army, which
had been pushed round on the German
left.

At Givonne the Guards, at a great
loss, stormed and captured seven guns
and three mitrailleuses, whose gunners
were all killed or made prisoners. Beat-
en out of Daigny and Givonne, the
French hereabouts fled in a disorderly
crowd into the woods, or fell back upon
the centre, which they incommoded and
discouraged by their precipitate appear-
ance on a part of the field where they
were not wanted. Shortly after, the

junction between the Prussian Guards
and the Crown Prince was accom-
plished, and the ring was now complete.
Successes equal to those at Daigny
and Givonne were obtained by the Ger-
mans in other directions, and the French
centre began to recede, though the con-
test was still prolonged with desperate
tenacity, the French fiercely disputing
every hill-slope and point of vantage,
and inflicting as well as sustaining tre-
mendous losses.

Stubborn Resistance.

Meanwhile the French right had been
hotly engaged. A railway bridge which
crosses the Meuse near Le Dancourt had
been broken down by MacMahon, but
in the early morning the Crown Prince
had thrown some of his troops across the
river on pontoons, and was thus enabled
to plant his batteries on the crest of a
hill which overlooks Floing and the
surrounding country. The French, sud-
denly attacked in the rear, were more
than astonished at the position in which
they now found themselves ; but front-
ing up towards their assailants with all
their available strength, they main-
tained a prolonged resistance.

Their musketry fire was poured in
with such deadliness and determination,
that it was heard even above the deeper
notes of the mitrailleuse, now playing
with terrible effect on the Germans.
General Sheridan said he had never
heard so well -sustained and long-contin-
ued a small-arm fire.

By noon, however, the Prussian bat-
tery on the slope above the broken
bridge over the Meuse, above La Vil-
ette, had silenced two French batteries
near Floing, and now the enemy were
compelled to retire from the positio>v

414

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

About half-past twelve large numbers
of retreating French were seen on the
hill between Floing and Sedan, their
ranks shelled by a Prussian battery in
front of St. Menges.

Fierce Assaults.

The Germans now advanced and
seized Floing in the valley, holding it
against all attempts to dislodge them ;
but it still remained for them to scale
the heights beyond, from the entrenched
slopes and vineyards of which they were
exposed to a murderous fire. Here the
French had all the advantages of posi-
tion, and the Germans could make but
little headway in spite of their repeated
efforts, so that at this point the battle
came to something like a standstill for
nearly an hour and a half, the time
being consumed in assaults and counter-
assaults.

At last, on receiving reinforcements,
which brought up their strength in this
portion of the field to seventeen battal-
ions, the Germans once more advanced
to the attack, and the French saw that
something desperate must be done if
their position was to be saved. Hith-
erto the French cavalry had done little
or nothing, but now was their chance.
Emerging from the Bois de la Garenne
at the head of the 4th Reserve Cavalry
Division, consisting of four Scots-Grey-
ilooking regiments of Chasseurs d'Af-
rique and two regln:ents of Lancers,
General Marguerite prepared to charge
down upon the Germans. But he him-
self was severely wounded before his
imposing mass of picturesque horsemen
had fairly got in motion, and then the
command devolved on General Gallifet,
one of the bravest and most brilliant cav-
alry ofiicers in all France — inall Europe.

Placing himself at the head of his
magnificent array of horsemen, Gallifet
now launched them against the seven-
teen battalions of the Germans. Thun-
dering down the slope, the shining
squadrons broke through the line of
skirmishers scattering them like chaff".
But then, in the further pursuit of their
stormful career, they were received by
the deployed battalions in front and
flank with such a murderous fire of
musketry, supplemented by hurricanes
of grape-shot from the batteries, as
made them reel and roll to the ground
— man and horse — in struggling, con-
vulsive heaps. Nowhere throughout
the war was the terrible pageantry of
battle so picturesquely displayed as now
on these sacrificial slopes of Sedan,
when the finest and fairest chivalry of
France was broken and shivered by
bullet and bayonet as a furious wave is
shattered into spray by an opposing rock.

A Field of Slaughter.

Supported by Bonnemain's division
of four Cuirassier regiments, "these at-
tacks," wrote Moltke, "were repeated
by the French again and again, and
the murderous turmoil lasted for half
an hour, with steadily diminishing suc-
cess for the French. The infantry vol-
leys fired at short range strewed the
whole field with dead and wounded.
Many fell into the quarries or over the
steep precipices, a few may have escaped
by swimming the Meuse, and scarcely
more than half of these brave troops
were left to return to the protection of
the fortress. ' '

The scene was well described by an
eye-witness, Mr. Archibald Forbes: —
"At a gallop through the ragged in-
tervals in the confused masses of the in-

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

lib

faiitry came dashing the Chasseurs
d'Afrique. The squadrons halted,
fronted, and then wheeled into line, at
a pace and with a regularity which
would have done them credit in the
Champ de Mars, and did them double
credit executed as was the evolution
under a warm fire. That fire, as one
could tell by the dying away of the
smoke-jets, ceased all of a sudden, as if
the trumpets which rang out the
Charge !' for the Chasseurs had sounded
also the ' Cease firing!' for the German
artillery and infantry. Not a needle-
gun gave fire as the splendid horsemen
crashed down the gentle slope with the
velocity of an avalanche.

Grand Cavalry Charge,
** I have seen not a few cavalry
charges, but I never saw a finer one,
whether from a spectator's or an adju-
tant's point of view, than this one of
the Chasseurs d'Afrique. It was des-
tined to a sudden arrestment, and that
without the ceremony of the trumpets
sounding the 'Halt.' The horsemen
and the footmen might have seen the
color of each others' moustaches (to
use Havelock's favorite phrase), when
along the line of the latter there flashed
out a sudden, simultaneous streak of fire.
" Like thunder- claps sounding over
the din of a hurricane, rose the mea-
sured crash of the battery guns, and
the cloud of white smoke drifted away
towards the Chasseurs, enveloping them
for the moment from one's siglit. When
it blew away, there was visible a line
of bright uniforms and grey horses
struggling prostrate among the potato
drills, or lying still in death. Only a
handful of all the gallant show of five i
uinutes before were galloping back- i

ward up the slope, ler.ying tokens at
intervals of their progress as they re-
treated. So thorough a destruction by
what may be called a single volley pro-
bably the oldest soldier now alive never
witnessed."

The French Hurled Back.

The French had played their last
card. They had endeavored to give
the tide o^ battle a favorable turn by
sacrificing their cavalry, but in vain.
The Germans now stormed and captured
the heights of Floing and Cazal, and
from this time the battle became little
more than a mere farce. The French
were thoroughly disheartened, and ra.
pidly becoming an undisciplined rabble.
Hundreds and thousands of them al-
lowed themselves to be taken prisoners;
auimunition-wagons were exploding in
their midst, while the German artillery
were ever contracting their murderous
fire, and walls of bayonets closed every
issue. The fugitive troopers, rushing
about in search of cover, increased the
frightful confusion which began to pre-
vail throughout the circumscribed space
in which the French army had been
cooped up.

Still, from the German point of view,
a decisive blow was imperative, so that
the results of the mighty battle might
be secured without a doubt. With this
in view, the Prussian Guards and thfc
Saxons from Givonne quarter were
launched against the Bois de laGarenne,
which had become the last refuge of
the battered and broken French; and
these were soon driven back from every
point, with the loss of many guns and
prisoners — back on the fortress of Se-
dan in wild turmoil and disorganized
flight.

416

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

It is to the inside of this fortress that
the scene must now change, in order
that we may pick up and follow what
may be called the personal thread of
the great battle-drama, of which we
have but given the leading episodes.
For it is only at this point that the bat-
tle-drama began to enter its most inter-
esting, because most surprising phase.

Brave Marshal Wounded.

Marshal MacMahon, the French com-
mander-in-chief, had been in the saddle
as early as 5 a. m. When riding along
the high ground above La Moncelle he
was severely wounded in the thigh by
the fragment of a shell, and then he
nominated Ducrot his successor in com-
mand. By 8 o'clock the latter was ex-
ercising this command, in virtue of
which he had ordered a retreat west-
ward to Mezieres ; but presently he was
superseded by General de Wimpflfen,
who had but just arrived from Algeria,
and who hastened to countermand the
retreat ,on Mezieres in favor of an at-
tempt to break out in the opposite di-
rection towards Carignan. This chaos
of commanders and confusion of plans
proved fatal to the distracted French,
who now began to see that there was
no hope for them.

When riding out in the direction of
the hardest fighting, Napoleon had
met the wounded Marshal being brought
in on a stretcher. The unfortunate
Emperor mooned about the field for
hours under fire, but he had no influ-
ence whatever on the conduct of the
battle. He had already almost ceased
to be Emperor in the eyes of his gen-
erals, and even of his soldiers. De
Wimpffen sent a letter begging his im-
perial master " to place himself in the

midst of his troops, who could be relied
on to force a passage through tlie Ger-
man lines;" but to this exhortation his
Majesty vouchsafed no reply.

White Flag Goes Up.

Eventually he returned into the town
and, already showing the white feather,
gave orders for the hoisting of the white
flag. Up flew this white flag as a re-
quest to the Germans to suspend their
infernal fire ; but this signal of distress
had not long fluttered aloft when it was
indignantly cut down by General Faure,
chief-of-staff" to the wounded MacMa-
hon, acting on his own responsibility
alone. For some time longer the use-
less slaughter went on, and then Na-
poleon made another attempt to sue for
mercy.

" Why does this useless struggle go
on?" he said to Lebrun, who entered
the presence of his Majesty shortly be-
fore 3 P. M. "An hour ago or more I
bade the white flag be displaved in order
to sue for an armistice '"

Lebrun explained that, in addition to
the flying of the white flag, there were
other formalities to be observed in such
a case — the signing of a letter by the
commander-in-chief, and the sending of
it by an officer accompanied by a trum-
peter and a flag of truce.

These things being seen to, Lebrun
now repaired to where Wimpffen was
rallying some troops for an assault on
the Germans in Balan, near Bazeilles;
and on seeing Lebrun approach with all
his paraphernalia for a parley, the angry
commander-in-chief shouted: "No ca-
pitulation ! Drop that rag ! I mean to
fiofht on !" and forthwith he started for
Balan, carrying Lebrun with him into
the fray.

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

417

Meanwhile Ducrot, who had been
fighting hard about the Bois de la Ga-
renne, in the desperate attempt to retard
the contraction of the German circle of
fire and steel, resolved about this time
to pass through Se-
dan and join in Wim-
pflfen's proposed at-
tempt to cut a way
out towards Carig-
nan. -What he saw
in the interior of the
town may be de-
scribed almost in his
own words.

The streets, the
open places, the gates
were blocked up by
wagons, guns, and
the luggage and de-
bris of a routed army.
Bands of soldiers
without arms, with-
out packs, were rush-
ing about, throwing
themselves into the
churches or breaking
into private houses.
Many unfortunate
men were trampled
under foot. The few
soldiers who istill pre-
served a remnant of
energy seemed to be
expending it in ac-
cusations and curses.
" We have been be-
trayed," they cried ;
sold by traitors and cowards."

Nothing could be done with such
men, and Ducrot, desisting from his in-
tention to join De Wimpifen, hastened
to seek out the Emperor. The air was
all on fire; shells fell on roofs, and struck
27 Y. P. H. W.

masses of masonry, which crushed down
on the pavements. " I cannot under-
stand," said the Emperor, "why the
enemy continues his fire. I have or-
dered the white flag to be hoisted. I

MARSHAL MACMAHON — FRENCH COMMANDER AT THE
BATTLE OF SEDAN.

we have been

hope to obtain an interview with the
King of Prussia, and may succeed in
getting advantageous terms for the
army."

While the Emperor and Ducrot were
thus conversing, the German cannon-
ad*^ increased io deadly violence. Files

418

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

burst out ; women, children and wound-
ed were destroyed, and the air was
filled with shrieks, curses and groans.

"It is absolutely necessary to stop
this firing," at last exclaimed the Em-
peror, in a state of pallid perturbation.
" Here, write this : 'The flag of truce
having been displayed, negotiations are
about to be opened with the enemy.
The firing must cease all along the
line.' Now sign it !"

" Oh, no, sire," replied Ducrot; "I
cannot sign. By what right could I do
so ? General Wimpffen is in chief com-
mand."

"Yes," rejoined the Emperor; but I
know not where General Wimp-
ffen is to be found. Someone must
sign !"

"Let his chief-of-staff do so," sug-
gested Ducrot ; " or General Douay."

"Yes," said the limperor; "let the
chief-of-staff sign the order."

Disgraceful Altercation.
But what became of this order is nov
exactly known. All that is known is,
that the brave Wimpffen scorned even to
open the Emperor's letter, calling upon
his Majesty instead to come and help
in cutting a way out ; that the Emperor
did not respond to this appeal ; that
Wimpffen, failing in his gallant attempt
on Balan for want of proper support,
then retired to Sedan, and indignantly
sent in his resignation to the Emperor ;
that then, in the presence of his Majesty,
there was a scene of violent altercation
between Wimpffen and Ducrot, in the
course of which it was believed that
blows were actually exchanged ; and
that finally Napoleon brought Wim-
pffen to understand that, having com-
manded during the battle it was his

duty not to desert his post in circum-
stances so critical.

Furious Artillery Fire.

Let the scene now again shift to the
hill-top of Fresnois, where King Wil-
liam and his suite were viewing, as
from the dress-circle of a theatre, the
course of the awful battle-drama in the
town and valley below. The first white
flag run up by order of Napoleon had
not been noticed by the Germans,
and thinking thus that the French
meant to fight it out to the bitter end,
the King, between 4 and 5 P. M., ordered
the whole available artillery to concen-
trate a crushing fire on Sedan, crowded
as it was with fugitives and troops, so
as to bring the enemy to their senses as
soon as possible, no matter by what
amount of carnage, while at the same
time, under cover of this cannonade,
a Bavarian force prepared to storm the
Torcy Gate.

The batteries opened fire with fearful
effect, and in a short time Sedan seemed
to be in flames. This was the cannon-
ade which had burst out during the
Emperor's conversation with Ducrot,
making his Majesty once more give
orders for the hoisting of the white
flag ; and no sooner was it at length
seen flying from the citadel than the
German fire at once ceased, when the
King despatched Colonel Bronsart von
Schellendorff, of his staff, to ride down
into Sedan under a flag of truce and
summon the garrison to surrender.

Penetrating into the town, and ask-
ing for the commander-in-chief, this
ofiicer, to his utter astonishment, was
led into the presence of Napoleon !

For the Germans had not yet the
faintest idea that the Emperor was in

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

419

Sedan. Just as Colonel Bronsart was
starting oflf, General Sheridan, of the
United States Army, who was attached
to the royal headquarters, remarked to
Bismarck that Napoleon himself would
likely be one of the prizes.
*'Oh, no," replied the Iron
Chancellor, "the old fox
is too cunning to be caught
in such, a trap ; he has
doubtless slipped oflf to
Paris."

What, tben, was the sur-
prise of all when Colonel
Bronsart galloped back to
the hill-slope of Fresnois
with the astounding news
that the Emperor himself
was in the fortress, and
would himself at once com-
municate direct with the
King !

This Colonel Bronsart
was a man of French ex-
traction, being descended
(like so many in Prussia)
from one of those Hugue-
not families who had been
driven into exile by the
cruel despotism of Louis
XIV- And now — strange Nemesis of his-
tory— to the lineal representative of a
victim of this tyranny was given the
satisfaction of demanding, on behalf of
his royal Prussian master, the sword
of the historical successor in French
despotism to Louis XIV.

The effect on the field of battle, as
the fact of a surrender became obvious
to the troops, was most extraordinary.
The opening of one of the gates of
Sedan to permit the exit of the oflScer
bearing the flag of truce gave the first

tion. This gradually gained strength
until it acquired all the force of actual
knowledge, and ringing cheers rap
along the whole German line of battle.
Shakoes, helmets, bayonets, and sa-

fmpression of an approaching^ capitula-

COUNT VON MOIvTKK — COMMANDER OF THB GER-
MAN ARMY AT SEDAN.

bres were raised high in the air, an^
the vast army swayed to and fro in
the excitement of an unequalled tri'
umph. Even the dying shared in the
general enthusiasm. One huge Prus-
sian, who had been lying with his hand
to his side in mortal agony, suddenly
rose to his feet as he comprehended the
meaning of the cries, uttered a loud
" Hurrah ! " waved his hands on high,
and then, as the blood rushed from his
wound, fell dead across a Frenchman

On Bronsart returning to the King
with his ^lomeutous message, murmur-

420

OVERTHROW OF THE FREI^-'^H EMPIRE.

ed cries of ^^ Der Kaiser ist da!''''
(the Kaiser is there) ran through the
brilliant gathering, and then there was
a moment of dumbfounded silence.

"This is, indeed, a great success,"
then said the King to his retinue.
"And I thank thee" (turning to the
Crown Prince) "that thou hast helped
to achieve it."

A Sealed Letter.

With that the King gave his hand to
his son, who kissed it ; then to Moltke,
who kissed it also. Lastly, he gave his
hand to the Chancellor, and talked with
him for some time alone. Presently
several other horsemen — some escort-
ing-troopers — were seen ascending the
hill. The chief of them was General
Reille, the bearer of Napoleon's flag of
truce,"

Dismounting about ten paces from
the King, Reille, who wore no sword
and carried a cane in his hand, ap-
proached his Majesty with most humble
reverence, and presented hiu'. with a
sealed letter.

All stepped back from the King,
who, after saying, " But I demand, as
the first condition, that the army lay
down their arms,'' broke the seal and
read :

" Monsieur, my Brother, — Not
having been able to die in the midst of
my troops, it only remains for me to
p(ace my sword in the hands of your
Majesty. I am your Majesty's good bro-
*her. "Napoleon."

"Sedan, ist September."

:Certainly it seemed that the Emperor
-night have tried very much harder
'Jian he had done to die in the midst
of his troops, but his own hear'^ was
his best judge in this respect

On reading this imperial letter, the
King, as well he might, was deeply
moved. His first impulse, as was his
pious wont, was to offer thanks to God j
and then, turning to the silent and
gazing group behind him, he told theiih
the contents of the imperial captive*)^
letter.

The Crown Prince with Moltke and
others talked a little with General Reille,
whilst the King conferred with his
Chancellor, who then commissioned
Count Hartzfeldt to draft an answer to
the Emperor's missive.

William to Napoleon.

In a few minutes it was ready, and
his majesty wrote it out sitting on a
rush-bottom chair, while another was
held up to him by way of desk :

"Monsieur, my Brother, — Whilst
regretting the circumstances in which
we meet, I accept your Majesty's sword,
and beg you to appoint one of your
officers, provided with full powers, to
treat for the capitulation of the army
which has fought so bravely under your
command. On my part I have nomi-
nated General Von Moltke for this pur-
pose. I am your Majesty's good bro-
ther, ''William."
"Before Sedan, ist September, 1870."

While the King was writing this an-
swer, Bismarck held a conversation
with General Reille, who represented
to the Chancellor that hard conditions
ought not to be imposed on an army
which had fought so well.

"I shrugged my shoulders," said
Bismarck.

Reille rejoined that, before accepting
such conditions, they would blow them-
selves up sky high with the fortress.

"Do it, if you like; faites sauter^'*

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

421

replied Bismarck ; and the King's reply
was now handed to the envoy of the
captured Emperor.

The twilight was beginning to deepen
when General Reille rode back to
Sedan, but his way was lighted by the
• lurid gleam of the conflagrations in and
, around the fortress which crim-
soned the evening sky . And swift
as the upshooting fl.ames of shell-
struck magazine, flew all around
the circling German lines the
great and glorious tidings that the
Emperor with his army, were
prisoners of war !

In marching and in fighting,
the troops had performed prodigies
of exertion and of valor, but their
fatigues were for the time forgot-
ten in the fierce intoxication of
victory ; and when the stars began
to twinkle overhead, and the hill-
tops around Sedan to glow with
flickering watch-fires, up thenarose
from more than a hundred thou-
sand grateful German throats, loud
and clear through the ethereal
summer night, the deeply pious
strains of " Now thank we all our
God ;" and then the curtain of
darkness fell on one of the most
tragic and momentous spectacles ever
witnessed by this age of dramatic change
and wonders.

"Before going to sleep," wrote Mr.
Archibald Forbes — the prince, if not the
father, of war-correspondents — "I took
a walk round the half-obliterated ram-
i)arts which surround the once fortified
town of Donchery. The scene was very
fine. The whole horizon was lurid with
the reflection of fire. All along the val-
ley of the Meuse, on either side, were
the bivouacs of the German host. Two

hundred thousand men lay here around
their King. On the horizon glowed the
flames of the burning villages, the
flicker occasionally reflecting itself on a
link of the placid Meuse. Over all the
quiet moon waded through a sky cum-
bered with wind-clouds.

MARSHAL BAZAINE — DIVISION COMMANDER OF
THE FRENCH ARMY,

" What were the Germans doing on
this their night of triumph ? Celebrat-
ing their victory by wassail and riot?
No. There arose from every camp one
unanimous chorus of song, but not the
song of ribaldry. Verily they are a
great race these Germans — a masterful,
fighting, praying people ; surely in many
respects not unlike the men whom
Cromwell led. The chant that filled the
night air was Luther's hymn, the glori-
ous'—

' Nun danket alle Gott/

42^

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

the ' Old Hundredth ' of Germany. To
hear this great martial orchestra singing
this noble hymn under such circum-
stances was alone worth a journey to
Sedan, with all its vicissitudes and diffi-
culties."

Of the 200,000 men whom the Ger-
mans had marched up towards Sedan,
only about 120,000 had taken actual
part in the battle ; and of these their
glorious victory had entailed a loss of
460 officers and 8, 500 men in killed and
wounded. The French, on the other
hand, had to lament the terrible loss of
17,000 killed and wounded, and 24,000
prisoners taken on the field (including
3,000 who had fled over into Belgium
and been disarmed). On the part of the
Germans, the Bavarians and the men of
Posen had been the heaviest sufferers.

Loud Huzzas Greet the King.

On the night of the battle King Wil-
liam returned to Vendresse, "being
greeted," as he himself wrote, "on the
road by the loud hurrahs of the advanc-
ing troopS; who were singing the na-
tional hymn," and extemporizing illu-
minations in honor of their stupendous
victory ; while Bismarck, with Moltke,
Blumenthal, and several other staff-
officers, remained behind at the village
of Donchery — a mile or two from Sedan
— to treat for the capitulation of the
French army.

For this purpose an armistice had
been concluded till four o'clock next
morning. The chief French negotiators
were Generals de Wimpffen and Castel-
nau — the former for the army, the latter
for the Emperor.

Both pleaded very hard for a mitiga-
tion of Moltke' s brief but comprehensive
condition — unconditional surrender of

Sedan and all within it. But the Ger
man strategist was as hard and unbend-
ing as adamant ; and when De Wimpf-
fen, with the burning shame of a patriot
and the grief of a brave soldier convuls-
ing his heart, talked of resuming the
conflict rather than submit to such
humiliating terms, Moltke merely point-
ed to the 500 guns that were now encir-
cling Sedan on its ring of heights, and
at the same time invited Wimpffen to
send one of his officers to make a tlior-
ough inspection of the German position
so as to convince himself of the utter
hopelessness of renewed resistance.

Terms are Final.

The negotiations lasted for several
hours, and it was past midnight when
the broken-hearted De Wimpffen and
his colleagues returned to Sedan, having
meanwhile achieved no other result than
the prolongation of the armistice from
4 to 9 A. M. on the 2nd September, at
which hour to the minute, said Moltke,
the fortress would become the target of
half a thousand guns unless his terms
were accepted.

On returning to Sedan about i a. m.,
De Wimpffen at once went to the
Emperor to make a report on the sad
state of affairs, and beg his Majesty to
exert his personal influence to obtain
more favorable terms for the army.
For this purpose Napoleon readily un-
dertook to go to the German headquar-
ters at 5 A. M.

Soon after he had driven out of the
fortress, Wimpffen called a council of
war, consisting of all the commanding
generals, and put the question whether
further resistance was possible. It was
answered in the despairing negative by
all the thirty-two generals present, save

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

423

only two, Pelle and Carre de Bellemare;
while even these two in the end acqui-
esced in the absolute necessity of accept-
ing Moltke's terms on its being shown
them that another attempt to break
through the investing lines would only
lead to useless slaughter. For in the
course of the night the Germans had
further tightened their iron grip on the
fortress, and thickened the girdle of
their guns. No ; there was clearly
nothing left for the poor, demoralized
French but to yield to the inevitable,
and their only chance lay in the hope
that the Emperor himself would be able
to procure some mollification of their
terrible fate.

Notable Meeting.

But the hope proved a vain one.
Driving forth with several high officers
from the fortress about 5 a. m., the
Emperor, who was wearing white kid
gloves and smoking his everlasting
cigarette, sent on General Reille to
Donchery in search of Bismarck ; and
the latter, "unwashed and unbreak-
fasted," was soon galloping towards
Sedan to learn the wishes of his fallen
Majesty.

He had not ridden far when he en-
countered the Emperor, sitting in an
open carriage, apparently a hired one,
in which were also three officers of
high rank, and as many on horseback.
Bismarck had his revolver in his belt,
and on the Emperor catching sight of
this he gave a start ; but the Chancellor,
saluting and dismounting, approached
the Emperor with as much courtesy as
if he had been at the Tuileries, and
begged to know his Majesty's com-
mands.

Napoleon replied that he wanted to

see the King, but Bismarck explained
that this was impossible, his Majesty
being quartered fourteen miles away.
Had not the King, then, appointed any
place for him, the Emperor, to go to?

In a Poor Cottage.

Bismarck knew not, but meanwhile
his own quarters were at his Majesty's
disposal. The Emperor accepted the
offer, and began to drive slowly towards
Donchery, but, hesitating on account
of the possible crowd, stopped at a soli-
tary cottage, that of a poor weaver, a
few hundred paces from the Meuse
bridge, and asked if he could remain
there.

"I requested my cousin," said Bis-
marck, ' ' to inspect the house, and
he reported that, though free from
wounded, it was mean and dirty. Fol-
low, said Napoleon, and with him I
ascended a rickety, narrow staircase. In
a small, one-windowed room, with a
deal table and two rush-bottomed chairs,
we sat alone for about an hour — a great
contrast to our last meeting in the Tui-
leries in 1867," the year of the Paris
Exhibition. ' ' Our conversation was a
difficult thing, wanting, as I did, to
avoid touching on topics which could
not but painfully affect the man whom
God's mighty hand had cast down."

Whenever Napoleon led this conver-
sation, as he was forever doing, to the
terribly hard terms of the capitulation,
Bismarck met him with the assurance
that this was a purely military question,
and quite beyond his province. Moltke
was the man to speak to about sucli
things.

In the meantime efforts had been mace
to find better accommodation for the
Emperor, and this was at last discovered

424

OVERTHROW OF THE) FRENCH EMPIRE.

in the Chateau Bellevue, a little further
up the Meuse. Leaving Napoleon in
the weaver's cottage, Bismarck hurried
back to his quarters on the market-place
at Donchery to array himself in his full
uniform, and then, as he said, "I con-
ducted his Majesty to Bellevue, with a
squadron of Cuirassiers as escort."

King William Absent.

At the conference which now began,
the Emperor wished to have the King
present, from whom he expected soft-
ness and magnanimity ; but his Majesty
was told that his wish in this respect
could not possibly be gratified until
after the capitulation had been signed.

Oh ! if he could but see and plead
with the King — was the anguished
Emperor's constant thought; but the
King took very good care, or his coun-
sellors for him, that he should not ex-
pose himself to any personal appeal
for pity until the German army had
safely garnered a1^ **s splendid harvest
of victory.

Meanwhile De Wimpffen had come
out of Sedan with the despairing de-
cision of the council of war, and the
determination to accept Moltke's inex-
orable terms. But even Moltke, the
least sentrmental and emotional of men
could not help feeling a genuine throb
of pity for the very hard fate of De
Wimpffen — a man of German origin,
as his name implied — on whom it thus
fell to sign away the existence of an
army, of which he had not been four-
and-twenty hours in supreme command.

After his interview with Napoleon,
Bismarck rode to Chehery (on the road
to Vendresse), in the hope of meeting
the King and informing him how
things stood. On the way he was met

by Moltke, who had the text of the ca-
pitulation as approved by his Majesty ;
and on their return to Bellevue it was
signed without opposition.

By this unparalleled capitulation 83,-
000 men were surrendered as prisoners
of war in addition to the fortress of
Sedan with its 138 pieces of artillery,
420 field-guns, including 70 mitrail-.
lenses, 6,000 horses fit for service, 66,-
000 stand of arms, 1,000 baggage and
other wagons, an enormous quantity of
military stores, and three standards.
Among the prisoners yieldedup were the
Emperor and one of his field marshals
(MacMahon), 40 generals, and 2,825
various other officers, all of whom, by
the special mercy of King William,
were offered release on parole, though
only 500 of them took advantage of
this condition, the others being sent to
Germany. By the catastrophe of Sedan
the French had lost — in killed, wounded
and prisoners — no fewer than 124,000
men at one fell swoop !

Full Surrender.

With the capitulation , sealed and
signed, Bismarck and Moltke now hast-
ened back to the King, whom they
found on the heights above Donchery
about noon. His Majesty ordered the
important document to be read aloud
to his numerous and brilliant suite,
which included several German princes.

Now that an appeal had been taken
out of the Emperor's power, the King,
accompanied by the Crown Prince, rode
down to the chateau of Bellevue to
meet the fallen monarch. "At one
o'clock," wrote his Majesty to Queen
Augusta, ' ' I and Fritz set out, accom-
panied by an escort of cavalry belong-
ing to the staff. I dismounted at the

OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE.

425

chateau, and the Emperor came out to
meet me. The visit lasted for a quarter
of an hour. We were both deeply-
moved. I cannot describe what I felt
at the interview, having seen Napoleon
only three years ago at the height of
bis power."

And now, while the crushed and
broken-hearted Emperor was left to
spend his last day on the soil of France
prior to his departure "or the place of his
detention at Wil lelmshohe, near Cassel
(once, strange to say, the residence of
his uncle, King Jerome of Westpha" a),
King William, accompanied by Moltke,
Roon, Bismarck, and the rest of his
paladins, started on a ride through all
the positions occupied by the German
armies round Sedan. For five long
tours, over hill and dale, from battery

to battalion, and from corps to corps,
through all the various tribes of the
Fatherland in arms, rode the brilliant
cavalcade, greeted with triumphant
music and frantic cheering wherever it
went. " I cannot describe," wrote the
King, " the reception given me by the
troops, nor my meeting with the
Guards, who have been decimated. I
was deeply affected by so many proofs
of love and devotion."

No wonder the Germans very nearly
went mad with joy . For no victory had
ever been like this crowning master-
piece of Moltke' s genius — so colossal,
so complete, so momentous in its polit-
ical results, which converted the French
Empire into a Republic and the
Germanic Confederation into an Em-
pire.

CHAPTER XXVII.

American Victories in the War with Spain.

(»)c,TPON the outbreak of the war
A^ J between the United States and
^J>|^— i^ Spain in 1898, Admiral
Dewey was in command of
our Asiatic squadron, which at this
time was lying in the harbor of Hong
Kong. Colonel Roosevelt, of Rough
Rider fame, being then Assistant Secre-
tary of the Navy, gave orders from
Washington to Admiral Dewey to pro-
ceed to Manila and capture or destroy
the Spanish fleet which was known
to be in those waters.

The sailing of the American fleet
from Hong Kong on April 27 was
promptly cabled to Manila. Many of
the better class of residents at once
hurried aboard merchant vessels with
their valuables and fled. Those left
behind took no courage from the con-
fident boastings of the Spanish army
and naval officers, but gave way to
panic from fear of what would happen
when the native insurgents made an
attack on the town. It was known to
the Spanish authorities that the Ame-
rican fleet would be almost certain to
arrive on the evening of Saturday,
April 30th.

The Spanish fleet, which at first put
to sea to meet and destroy the " cow-
ardly Yankees," was recalled Saturday
afternoon and lined up at Cavite, where
the arsenals, dry-docks and naval war-
ships were defended by a long line of
earthworks. These works had been
greatly strengthened, notably by the
addition of several big modern guns.
426

They were regarded as very formidable
by old-fashioned Spanish military en-
gineers, as were also the fort on Corre-
gidor Island, the battery on Cabilla Is-
land, and the works on the mainland
points to the north and the south.
These islands were all in readiness,
and a chain of mines which guarde(J
both channels was prepared to blow up
each American ship as it passed.

Saturday night fell with the Span-
iards on land and water quite cheerful
over the coming engagement. A short
time after midnight, the darkness being
intense, one of the guns in Corregidor
suddenly boomed out, and all the othei
guns about the entrance to the bay
took up the cry, and the anxious people
in Manila poured into the streets.
They thought the battle had begun.
In reality the American fleet was al-
ready past the entrance and was on its
way up the opposite side of the bay.

It was a night of terror in Manila.
The women and children fled to the
churches, and men rushed to and fro
in the streets. Dismay seized upon
the Spanish soldiers. They had not
believed that the Americans could ever
get past the entrance to the batteries
and past the mines. lyong before dawn
the panic became a frenzy because of
reports that came from the interior of
the island that the natives were mass-
ing for a descent upon the city to pill-
age and massacre. When day broke
the tens of thousands watching on ail
sides of the vast and beautiful harboi

AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN.

427

saw the enemy in line of battle about
ten miles out, directly in front of Ma-
nila. There were nine vessels in all.

The Olympia, 5800 tons, a swift com-
merce destroyer, carrying four terrible
8-inch guns and ten deadly 5-inch quick-
firers. This was Dewey's flagship.

The Baltimore, scarcely
less formidable than the
Olympia, with four eight-
inch guns and six six-inch
rapid-firers.

The Boston, smaller than
the Olympia and Balti-
more, but still a real and ^^'
powerful floating fort, with
her two eight-inch guns
and her six six-inch rapid-
firers.

The Raleigh, similar to
the Boston, with one six-
inch and ten five-inch
guns.

The Concord, with six
six-inch guns.

The gunboat Petrel, with
five six-inch guns.

To the rear of these the
transport ships, with coal,
ammunition and accom-
modations for wounded.

With a bright American flag floating
gayly over each ship, the decks and all
visible appointments neat and trim,
the fleet seemed to be out for a holiday
rather than awaiting an opening for
the only real demonstration of an iron-
clad fleet in action that the world has
had. The Spaniards could hardly be-
lieve their own eyes. That this formid-
able apparition 'was in the very centre
of their harbor, almost within firing
distance of the capital city of their last
Eastern possessions seemed impossible.

They had not long to watch and
speculate. The sun was hardly clear ot
the horizon before the American fleet
began to steam in slow and stately
fashion straight toward the city, near
which were anchored three men-of-war
from three different nations, French,

ADMIRAL George; dewuy — hero of manila.

German and English. The decks and
rigging of each of these ships were
thronged with eager officers and sailors,
discipline seeming to have been forgot-
ten in an intense desire to see what the
Yankees would do — these Yankees who
in three quarters of a century have
never sent a hostile fleet into any port
of a European Power.

On came the American fleet until it
was within about three miles of Manila,
and then a Spanish gun on the battery
at the end of the Mole spoke ; but the

4^8

AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN.

shot fell short. Then from the Span-
ish fleet, steaming slowly up from Ca-
vite, came several shots at the Ameri-
can fleet. The two duelists were now
face to face.

The smaller cruisers Velasco, Don
Juan de Austria, and Don Antonio de
Ulloa, besides ten gunboats.

Then there were the batteries on
shore all along the low peninsula.

MANILA HARBOR — SCENE)

To expert eyes the Spanish fleet
seemed far inferior, yet to the people
watching, and, apparently, to the Span-
ish ofiicers and sailors, the difference
did not seem great. The Spanish ships
were of older patterns, rather than
smaller, and were far more numerous.
There were :

The Reina Cristina, of 3090 tons,
with six six-inch and two three-inch
guns.

The Castilla, with four six-inch guns.

OF THE GRUDAT BATTLE.

To get the full effect of all of these*
g'lns the Spaniards formed so that the
Americans would have to face not only
all the guns atloat, but also all the guns:
on shore at Cavite, while from the reat
the strong batteries of Manila could,
perhaps, send aiding shots. When the
American manoeuverings brought their
ships within range, at about 6.45, the
real duel began. The Spanish fleet
stood ready, flanked by the Cavite bat-
teries on the south.

AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN.

429

Tlie American fleet began to steam
languidly to and fro. Suddenly there
were one or two sharp cracks, and then
a succession of deafening roars, and
then one long, reverberating roar, that
boomed and bellowed from shore to
shore. A huge cloud of
smoke lay close upon the
waters, and around it was a
penumbra of thick haze.

Through this the Ameri-
can ships could be seen mov-
ing, now slowly, now more
rapidly, flames shooting from
their sides, and answering
flames leaping from the Span-
ish ships and land batter-
ies, while now and then
from the direction of Manila
came hollow rumbles as the
big guns there were dis-
charged, more from eager-
ness to take part than from
the hope of lending eflfcc-
tive aid.

It was impossible to see
from shore the effect of many
of the shots, but from the fact
that the American ships were
alternately advancing and re-
treating in the course of their
manoeu verings the Spaniards
on shore got the impression
that the Yankees were being beaten.
When the ships were again seen, the
Reina Cristina was wrapped in flames.
On her decks sailors, Spaniards and
natives, were rushing frantically about.
The Isle De Cuba came near, and part
of the Reina Cristina's crew— perhaps
all that were still alive — and the Span-
ish Admiral went aboard her, but hardly
were they aboard when she, too, burst
into flames.

Confusion now reigned throughout
the Spanish fleet. On every vessel the
decks were slippery with blood and the
air filled with the shrieks and groans of
the Spaniards. The native sailors rushed
about in a frenzy of rage rather thaa

ADMIRAL MONTOJO,
COMMANDER OP SPANISH FI^EET AT MANII.A.

terror. The Americans were seemingly
calm and cool, and still in good order
they pressed their advantage. In fact,
they pushed on too closely, for now the
fire from the Cavite batteries became
effective.

At this juncture the Don Juan de
Austria became a centre of interest.
She had been in the very front of battle
and received, perhaps, more of the
American shots than any other ship.

430

AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN.

Admiral Montojo, on the burning Isla
de Cuba, threw up his arms with a ges-
ture of despair as a heavy roar came
from the Don Juan de Austria and part
of her deck flew up in the air, taking
with it scores of dead, dying and man-
gled. A shot had penetrated one of her
magazines. She was ruined and sink-
ing, but her crew refused to leave her.
Weeping, cursing, praying and firing
madly and blindly they went down with
her, and as the Don Juan de Austria
went down the Castilla burst into
flames.

Great American Victory,
The remainder of the Spanish fleet
now turned and fled down the long,
narrow inlet behind Cavite. Several
of the gun- brats were run ashore, others
fled up a v<=irjall creek and were grounded
there. The guns of Cavite kept on
thundering, and the Americans, pressing
their advantage no further, drew off.
As they steamed away toward their
waiting transports the Spaniards went
wild with joy.

They thought that in spite of outward
appearances the American fleet was
crippled, and that as it would be unable
to escape from the harbor it would fall
into their hands. This was telegraphed
up to Manila, and soon to Madrid,
where it filled the Ministry with mo-
mentary delight ; but before the Minis-
ters at Madrid had read the false news,
the American fleet, with decks again
cleared, and with fresh supplies of
ammunition, was steaming back toward
Cavite.

This second engagement was short.
The last Spanish ship was soon ground-
ed or sunk. The American guns were
now trained on Cavite, and one ship

after another steamed along pouring in
a deadly fire. At 1 1. 30 the batteries at
Cavite ceased to answer, and the Amer-
ican fleet with ringing cheers from its ex-
hausted, but triumphant crews steamed
jubilantly back to the transport ships.
And to the long list of splendid naval
victories beginning with the Revolution
was added the glorious victory of Ma-
nila.

In honor of his distinguished services
Commodore Dewey was raised to the
rank of Admiral, and Congress passed a
series of resolutions thfl.nking him and
his men for services rendered their
country.

In the following August the city of
Manila was captured by our troops
under command of General Merritt,
aided by Dewey's fleet.

War in Cuba.

During the early part of July such
complete victories were gained by the
American land and naval forces in Cuba
as to end the war with Spain. Our
Government at Washington despatched
the North Atlantic Squadron under
command of Admiral Sampson, and the
squadron under command of Admiral
Schley, to Santiago on the southern
coast of Cuba. Troops to the number
of 16,000 were also ordered to Santiago
under command of General Shafter.

The American officers showed the
utmost energy in preparing for the at-
tack on Santiago; by July 1st every-
thing was in readiness, and General
Shafter ordered a forward movement
with a view of investing and capturing
the town. The advance was made in
two divisions, the left storming the
works at San Juan. Our forces in this
assault were composed of the Rotigh

AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN.

431

Riders, commanded by Colonel Wood,
subsequently by Lieutenant-Colonel
Roosevelt, and the First, Third, Sixth,
Ninth and Tenth dismounted cavalry.
Catching the enthusiasm and boldness
of the Rough Riders, these men rushed
against the San Juan defences with a
fury that was irresistible.

Their fierce assault was met
by the Spaniards with a stub-
bornness born of desperation.
Hour after hour the troops on
both sides fought fiercely. In
the early morning the Rough
Riders met with a similar,
though less costly experience
to the one they had at La
Quasina just a week before,
where in a hot skirmish they
lost a number of men. They '
found themselves a target for a
terrific Spanish fire, to resist
which for a time was the work
of madmen. But the Rough
Riders did not flinch. Fight-
ing like demons, they held their
ground tenacious]\, now press-
ing forward a ^ r feet, then
falling back, uuGv <fhe enemy's
fire, to the position they held
a few moments before.

The Spaniards were no maicn for the
Roosevelt fighters, however, and as
had been the case at La Quasina, the
Western cowboys and Eastern " dan-
dies " hammered the enemy from their
path. Straight ahead they advanced,
until by noon they were well along to-
ward San Juan, the capture of which
was their immediate object.

There was terrible fighting about the
heights during the next two hours.
While the Rough Riders were playing
such havoc in the enemy's lines, the

First, Third, Sixth, Ninth and Tenth
cavalry gallantry pressed forward to
right and left.

Before the afternoon was far gone
these organizations made one grand
rush all along the line, carrying the
Spaniards off their feet, capturing tht
San Juan fortifications, and sending

GKNKRAI. WE;SI.E;y MEJRRITT,
COMMANDER OF AMERICAN ARMY AT MANILA.

the enemy in mad haste off toward
Santiago. It was but three o'clock
when these troops were able to send
word to General Shafter that they had
taken possession of the position he had
given them a day to capture.

In this attack the cavalrymen were
supported by the Sixth and Sixteenth
infantry, who made a brilliant charge
at the crucial moment. The advance
was up a long steep slope, through a
heavy underbrush. Our men were
subjected to a terrific fire from the ene-

432

AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN.

my's trenches, and the Rough Riders
and the Sixth cavahy suffered severely.
On the right, General Lawton's divi-
sion, supported by Van Home's bri-
gade, under command temporarily of
Colonel lyudlow, of the Engineers, drove
the enemy from in front of Caney, forc-
ing them back into the village. There

, ■'*■»'

GENKRAL WIIvIvIAM R. SHAFTER,
COMMANDER OF AMERICAN ARMY AT SANTIAGO

the Spaniards for a time were able to
hold their own, but early in the after-
noon the American troops stormed the
village defences, driving the enemy out
and taking possession of the place.
Gaining the direct road into Santiago,
they established their lines within three-
quarters of a mile of the city at sunset.
General Shafter's advance against the
city of Santiago was resumed soon after
daybreak on the morning of July 2d.
The American troops renewed the at-
tack on the Spanish defences with

impetuous enthusiasm. They were not
daunted by the heavy losses sustained
in the first day's fighting. Inspired by
the great advantages they had gained
on the preceding day, the American
troops were eager to make the final
assault on the city itself Their ad-
vance had been an uninterrupted series
of successes, they having forced
the Spaniards to retreat from
each new position as fast as it
jad been taken. Admiral Samp-
son, with his entire fleet, joined
in the attack.

The battles before the intrench-
ments around Santiago resulted
in advantage to General Shaf-
'_ ter's army. Gradually he ap-
proached the city, holding every
foot of ground gained. In the
fighting of July 2d, the Spanish
were forced back into the town,
their commanding general was
wounded, and the day closed
with the certainty that soon our
flag would float over Santiago.

The fleet of Admiral Cervera
had long been shut up in the
harbor, and during the two
days' fighting gave effective aid
to the Spanish infantry by throw"
ing shells into the ranks of the Ameri-
cans. On the morning of July 3d, an-
other great naval victory was added to
the successes of the American arms, a
victory no less complete and memorabl j
than that achieved by Dewey at Ma-
nila.

Admiral Cervera' s fleet, consisting of
the armored cruisers Cristobal Colon,
Almirante Oquendo, Infanta Maria Te-
resa, and Vizcaya, and two torpedo-boat
destioycrs, the Furor and the Pluton,
which had been held in the harbor of

AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAlJN.

43a

Santiago de Cuba for six weeks by the
combined squadrons of Rear-Admiral
Sampson and Commodore Schley, was
sent to the bottom of the Caribbean Sea
off the southern coast of Cuba.

The Spanish admiral was made a
prisoner of war on the auxiliary gun-
boat Gloucester, and i,ooo to i,SOO
other Spanish ofScers and sailors,
all who escaped the frightful car-
nage caused by the shells from the
American warships, were also made
prisoners of war by the United
States navy.

The American victory was com-
plete, and the American vessels /
were practically untouched, and
only one man was killed, though
the ships were subjected to the
heavy fire of the Spaniards all the
time the battle lasted.

Admiral Cervera made as gal-
lant a dash for liberty and for the
preservation of the ships as has
ever occurred in the history of
naval warfare. In the face of
overwhelming odds, with nothing
before him but inevitable destruc-
tion or surrender if he remained
nny longer in the trap in which
Mie American fleet held him,
lie made a bold dash from the harbor
at the time the Americans least ex-
pected him to do so, and, fighting
every inch of his way, even when his
ship was ablaze and sinking, he tried to
escape the doom which was written on
the muzzle of every American gun
trained upon his vessels

The Americans saw him the moment
he left the harbor and commenced their
work of destruction immediately. For
an hour or two they followed the flying
Spaniards to the westward alone the
28 Y. p. H. w.

shore line, sending shot after shot into
their blazing hulls, tearing great holes
in their steel sides and covering their
decks with the blood of the killed and
wounded.

At no time did the Spaniards show
any indication that they intended to do
otherwise than fight to the last They

\DMIRAL CERVERA — COMMANDER OF THB
SPANISH FIvEET AT SANTIAGO.

displayed no signals to surrender even
when their ships commenced to sink
and the great clouds of smoke pouring
from their sides showed they were on
fire. But they turned their heads toward
tlie shore, less than a mile away, and
ran them on the beach and rocks, where
their destruction was soon completed.

The ofiicers and men on board then
escaped to the shore as well as they
could with the assistance of boats sent
from the American men-of-war, and
then threw themselves upon the mercy

43-2

AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN.

of their captors, who not only extended
to them the gracious hand of American
chivalry, but sent them a guard to pro-
tect them from the murderous bands of
Cuban soldiers hiding in the bushes on
the hillside, eager to rush down and
attack the unarmed, defeated, but val-
orous foe.

One after another the Spanish ships
became the victims of the awful
rain of shells which the American bat-
tleships, cruisers and gun-boats poured
upon them, and two hours after the first
of the fleet had started out of Santiago
harbor three cruisers and two torpedo-
boat destroyers were lying on the shore
ten to fifteen m.iles west of Morro Cas-
tle, pounding to pieces, smoke and
flame pouring from every part of them
and covering the entire coast line
with a mist which could be seen for
miles.

Heavy explosions of ammunition oc-
curred every few minutes, sending curls
of dense white smoke a hundred feet
in the air and causing a shower of bro-
ken iron and steel to fall in the water on
every side. The bluffs on the coast
line echoed' with the roar of every ex-
plosion, and the Spanish vessels sank
deeper and deeper into the sand or
<»lse the rocks ground their hulls to

pieces as they rolled or pitched forward.
or sideways with every wave that washed
upon them from the open sea.

Admiral Cervera escaped to the shore
in a boat sent by the Gloucester to the
assistance of the Infanta Maria Teresa,
and as soon as he touched the beach he
surrendered himself and his command
to Lieutenant Morton and asked to be
taken on board the Gloucester, which
was the only American vessel near him
at the time, with several of his officers,
including the captain of the flagship.
The Spanish admiral, who was wounded
in the arm, was taken to the Gloucester,
and was received at her gangway by
her commander. Lieutenant Richard
Wainwright, who grasped the hand of
the gray-bearded admiral and said to
him:

' ' I congratulate you, sir, upon having
made as gallant a fight as was ever wit-
nessed on the sea. "

The only casualties in the American
fleet were one man killed and two
wounded on the Brooklyn. A large
number of the Spanish wounded were
removed to the American ships.

Soon afterward the Spanish army in
the Province of Santiago surrendered
to General Shafter and our war with
Spain was ended.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

War Between the British and the Boers.

YJ)^j'OSTILITIES between Great
Britain and the Transvaal, or
South African Republic,
which had been impending
for several years broke out in October,
1899. On the 9tli of this month the
British Government received the Boer
ultimatum, demanding that points in
dispute be referred to arbitration ; that
all British troops on the border of the
Transvaal be instantly withdrawn ; that
reinforcements sent to South Africa
since June ist be removed ; that no
more troops be landed in South Africa,
and that Great Britain answer before
5 o'clock p. M., October nth. On the
same date the Gordon Highlanders and
troops from India were ordered to Lady-
smith, a town in Natal.

Great Britain on the loth, replied
that conditions demanded by the Trans-
vaal were such as could not be dis-
cussed. The British agent was in-
structed to apply for his passport,
which meant that war was an assured
fact, and that communication between
the two governments was now at an
end.

The time for acceptance of the ulti-
matum expired at 5 o'clock p. m., Oc-
tober iith. Conyngham Greene, the
British agent at Pretoria, paid his fare-
well visits to President Kruger and the
Boer officials. General Prinsloo was
appointed Commander-in-Chief of the
Orange Free State forces ; headquarters
at Albertina. The Boers occupied
lyaing's Nek and the British hurried
troops to the western border.

The Orange Free State joined the

Transvaal in war against Great Britain,
and hurried troops forward to co-operate
with the Boer army under command of
General Joubert. General Cronje com-
manded the Boer forces on the western
border, and laid siege to Kimberley,
the "Diamond City," and also to Mafe-
king, another important town lying
north of Kimberley. It will suffice for
our present purpose to furnish here a
chronicle of the important events of the
struggle, which was desperate and
bloody, both sides exhibiting the most
consummate strategy and the greatest
heroism.

At Nicholson's Nek about 800 Brit-
ish officers and men and two-thirds of a
mountain battery were captured, and
about 650 prisoners and two guns fell
into the hands of the Boers at Storm-
berg. Eleven guns were also taken by
the Boers at Colenso.

General Buller suffered a severe re-
pulse at Colenso on December 15th, but
his campaign met with its greatest dis-
aster late in January. A flanking move-
ment, under the immediate command
of General Warren, failed signally, and
a general withdrawal of the British
forces to the south side of the Tugela
River was the immediate result.

Mafeking was invested on October
14th, and after that date Colonel Baden-
Powell, with 1,600 irregulars, kept at
bay a Boer force with a varying strength
of from 2,000 to 5,000 men.

Ivord Methuen, commanding the
British forces on the western border,
fought four battles and advanced to
within twenty-five miles of beleaguered

435

436

WAR BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND THE BOERS.

Kimberley. Belmont, Gras Pan and
Modder River cost 1,167 lives, and at
Magersfontein, where his progress was
stopped, he lost 967 more ment He then
remained at a standstill nntil General
Roberts arrived with reinforcements,
drove the Boers back, finally captured
General Cronje and some 4,000 of his
troops, and raised the seige of Kimber-
ley. This occurred on February 27th.
Lord Roberts reached Modder River
February 9th, where a force of British
troops had been concentrated. On
February nth British cavalry and
mounted infantry began the movement
on the Boer's left flank which resulted
General Cronje's flight toward

m

Bloemfontein, capital of Orange Free
State, his being surrounded at Paarde-
burg on February 19th, after a series of
rear-guard engagements and his surren
der on February 27th, as already stated.
Meanwhile Kimberley was incidentally
relieved on February 15th, after a siege
of 123 days.

In the latter part of October, soon
after the war began, battles were fought
in the northern part of Natal, yet were
not decisive. The British troops en-
countered a strong force of Boers at
Dundee, and also at Elandslaagte. On
October 20th the Boer General Inkas
Meyer's column attacked the British
forces under General Symons. The
British troops suffered severely, and
General Symons was mortally wounded.
At Elandslaagte, October 21st, a British
column under General French, com-
mander of cavalry, routed the Boers.
General Yule withdrew the British
forces to Ladysmith, and this town was
besieged.

The disasters that overtook the Boers
on the western border compelled them

to abandon the siege at Ladysmith
and on February 28th General Dun-
donald with the Natal Carbineers and a
composite regiment entered Ladysmith.
The garrison was on a half pound of
meal daily per man and were supple-
menting the meat ration with horses
and mules. It was learned that General
White had withstood a heavy bombard-
ment, repelled two hard pressed attacks
and made two successful sorties.

Peace proposals having been made
by the Boer government, unconditional
surrender on the part of the Transvaal
and Orange Free State, and an absolute
declination to consider any proffer of
good offices or intervention on the part
of any foreign Power, was the policy
decided upon by the British Govern-
ment.

After the Boers were driven from
Bloemfontein they concentrated at Wep-
ener, a short distance to the south-east.
This place was held by the British, who
successfully resisted several sharp at-
tacks. This was the beginning of the
end, and the Boers gave up a hopeless
struggle. Lord Roberts was the most
prominent leader of the British forces.

The success of the British arms in
the South African war placed a large
area of territory in the southern part of
the continent of Africa under control
of Great Britain. Gold and diamond
mines of immense value are located in
this part of Africa.

The whole continent is in the pro-
cesss of rapid development. Civiliza-
tion is extending over that part of the
country formerly occupied by wild
animals and savages. A railway the
whole length of Africa, and already
partially constructed, is one of the great
projects soon to be realized.

CHAPTER XXIX.

"War Between Russia and Japan.

IN FEBRUARY, 1904, war broke
out between Russia and Japan.
The essence of Japan's demands
translated from diplomatic lan-
guage, was the absolute territorial in-
tegrity of Korea and China, the latter
referring especially to Manchuria.
Russia on January 6th returned an an-
swer to Japan's note of December 22d,
in which the latter had refused Russia's
proposal that all Korea north of the
thirty-ninth degree of latitude (about
one-third of the country) should be
neutral'.

Japan in this had also stipulated that
the special concessions of either nation
in Korea or China should be recognized,
provided that the "open door" policy
be observed. In Russia's answer she
again insisted upon the neutral zone
and vaguely hinted her intentions to
respect Japan's right in Manchuria. On
January 1 3th Japan replied reaffirming
her demands, and apparently closing
the door to any further quibbling. Japan
stood firm on this proposition. Those
who thought it impossible for so power-
ful a nation as Russia to recede from its
position at the behest of a much smaller
power could see only war. as a result.

In the meantime Japan continued all
her preparations as though she actually
expected war. A prominent Tokio
paper in a warlike editorial declared
that every hope of securing the legiti-
mate demands of Japan diplomatically
had been abandoned and the govern-
ment, therefore, was compelled to take
such steps and to reserve to itself such
freedom of action as would insure per-

petual peace in the Far East. Japan
prepared her finances for an unlimited
war expenditure, she continued the pur-
chase and manufacture of ammunition
and supplies, she impressed a score of
ocean passenger steamers as provided
in their charters, published an imperial
ordinance approving the various coast
defense regulations and forbidding,
under stated penalties, the navigating
of private vessels fishing within specific
areas, or the carrying out of marine
work which might be inimical to Jap-,
anese naval interests, purchased ad-
ditional naval vessels, took possession
of railways for transportation purposes,
and took many other steps preparatory
for war.

On the midnight of February 8th,
Japan struck the great Russian power
a blow full in the face, and the long-
impending struggle began. It has been
frequently said i-hat the way to prevent
war is to be prepared for it. Japan was
prepared for it and precipitated it.
Russia was only partly prepared for it,
but had she been fully prepared, it
could not have been prevented. This
war became inevitable when Russia,
backed by France and Germany,
wrenched from Japan the chief fruits of
the latter's victory over China in 1895.
Indeed, it seems to have become inevit-
able long before that. Russia's gradual
expansion eastward through Asia, ren-
dering ultimately necessary to her the '
control of important points on the Pa-
cific coast opposite Japan, and Japan's
very natural ambition to gain holdings
and commercial advantages on the con-

437

438

WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN.

tinent, were long ago ominous of
"war's dreaded alarms."

The naval attacks on the Russian
fleet were successful, and a number of
ships were captured and the Japanese
took possession of several important
ports.

The Japanese fleet continued to infest
Port Arthur, and every day some sort of
attack on it or its protecting fleet was
made. The Japanese naval tactics were
evidently to avoid a close range fight in
which some of her vessels might pos-
sibly be injured, but to bombard at safe
range, which would be disturbing and
effective, until such time as aland force
could co-operate in the capture of this
stronghold. The Russian fleet was too
weak to do more than act on the de-
fensive, under protection of the guns of
the forts. The reduction and capture
of Port Arthur seems to have been the
first objective of the Japanese.

Greatest Disaster.

The comparative calm which had
hovered over the Yellow Sea was
broken on the 13th of April by the
greatest disaster of the war, and again
it was the Russians who were the suf-
ferers. On that morning the Petropav-
lovsk, one of the huge battleships of
the Russian navy, was destroyed by the
explosion of a mine under her keel
and sunk, together with nearly six
hundred of her crew. But even this
did not measure the extent of the disas-
ter. Admiral Makarofif, the idol of the
Russian navy and the commander of
the Port Arthur fleet, was lost with all
of his staff". It was the merest chance
that the royal family was not thrown
into mourning for one of its own mem-
bers. Tlie Grand Duke Cyril, a cousin

of the Czar, who was on the ship, was
injured by the explosion and thrown
into the water, but he is of powerful
build and an athlete, and kept himself
afloat until rescued by one of the
smaller craft.

Important events occurred on the war
stage during the month. The Japanese
army kept in the background while the
navy was scoring its successes, came to
the front as a vigorous offensive force.
The islands in the estuary of the river
were occupied by both armies. The
Japanese forces comprised what is desig-
nated in the dispatches as the "first
army," and was under command of
General Kuroki.

Japanese Operations.

From the 24th to the 30th of April
the Japanese were engaged in various
operations aiming at the crossing of the
river. These extended as far as seventy-
five miles up the stream. The 28th,
29th and 30th witnessed considerable
serious fighting, and by the night of the
latter date, the Japanese had succeeded
in putting their force upon the north
bank of the river. The main crossing
was on a pontoon bridge near Wi-ju.

The climax came on May ist, when
the Japanese made a direct attack upon
the Russian lines at Kin-lin-chang.
The Russians had the advantage ot
position, but the Japanese were largely
superior in numbers. The fighting was
desperate and at close range upon both
sides, but the Russians were defeated.
An-tung was abandoned by them and
occupied by the victorious Japanese.
Twenty eight Russian guns were cap-
tured and a large quantity of arms and
ammunition.

The Russians fell back to Feng-

WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN.

439

Wang-Cheng, the "gate of Korea," and
about forty miles from the Yalu, where
it was announced an unusual strong-
position was occupied and would be de-
fended. Strong reinforcements were
also reported on their way from Liao-
Yang on the line of the railroad, which
added to the natural defenses of the
position would render an attack by the
Japanese almost hopeless. The Japan-
ese, however pressed forward, and Feng-
Wang-Cheng was occupied by them on
the 6th of May, the Russians retiring
in the direction of Liao-Yang.

Blew up Magazine.

Before leaving they exploded the
magazine, but left large quantities of
hospital stores and equipment. It was
at first reported that the Russians had
evacuated without special pressure, but
it transpired that several sharp engage-
ments in that vicinity had occurred.
Large numbers of prisoners from Gen-
eral Zasselitch's army were captured
here, being unable to join the main
retreating force. To have crossed the
Yalu, and advanced as far as Feng-
Wang-Cheng was a great week's work,
and the work of General Kuroki was
accounted a great success.

Another great movement in the Jap-
anese campaign, which was timed to
follow Kuroki's success and the further
bottling up of Port Arthur's harbor,
was the landing of the "second army ''
under General Oku on the Liao-Tung
peninsula. This occurred on the 5 th
and 6th.

On May 12th Viceroy AlexeiefF re-
ported to the Czar that the Russians
had blown up the docks and piers at
Dalny. This was done to render more
difficult a Japanese landing at that

point. The destruction of this valuable
property showed the desperate condition
which Russia considered herself in at
that point.

Dalny, with Port Arthur, was leased
by the Chinese Government to Russia
in 1898, and before the end of four
years the latter country had expended
over $6,000,000 on the harbor system.
Five large piers had been constructed,
each being supplied with numerous
railroad tracks and immense warehouses
and elevators, gas, electric lights, and
water, and a large breakwater were
being constructed. It was estimated
that the cost of completing the works
would be nearly $20,000,000. Russia
intended the city to be the chief com-
mercial emporium of her Eastern
dominions. Talienwan Bay, on which
the city is located, is one of the finest
deep water harbors on the Pacific.

Blocking the Harbor.

Another determined effort was made
by the Japanese to block the harbor of
Port Arthur May 3rd. It was the most
desperate attempt of any which had
been made with that object in view.
Earlier attempts had been made under
cover of darkness, but the volunteers
who participated in the last one urged
the privilege of going in the daylight,
that being easier and giving greater
chances of success. This was accord-
ingly done, though the advantage was
taken of a dense fog. Eighty fireships,
armed with rapid fire guns, and each
laden with stone and combustible, con-
voyed by five torj)edo boats, composed
the expedition.

Four of the fireships were blown up
by submarine mines and four by shells
from the shore batteries or torpedoes

440

WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN.

from Russian torpedo boats. The Jap-
anese claimed that five of the eight
reached the desired place, and that the
harbor was effectually blocked for any-
thing larger than torpedo boats. The
Russians claimed the channel was still
clear. None of the larger boats were
seen outside afterwards, and the Japan-
ese immediately after this operation
commenced the transportation of troops
to parts on the L-iao-Tung peninsula.

Victory for the Japanese.

A three day's battle between the Rus-
sian and Jupanese forces in the Liao-
Tung peninsula, culminated on the
15th in a decisive victory for the Jap-
anese. The battle started in the vicinity
ofVafango, some fifty -five miles north
of Port Arthur, and ended at Telissu,
twenty-five miles still further north,
where a large force of Japanese flanked
the retiring Russian army. The site
of the battle was some hundred miles
south of the location of General Kuro-
patkin's main army near Liao-Yung.
The Russian force under General Stakel-
berg consisted of about 35,000 men,
while the Japanese had a total of
70,000.

All accounts agree that the fighting
was desperate and vigorous on both
sides, and the defeated Russians showed
as much valor and fighting qualities as
the victorious Japanese. The Russian
forces had been sent south, whether to
attempt to relieve Port Arthur, or to
meet a fourth Japanese army which was
landing at the head of the Liao-Tung
peninsula. They were evidently unpre-
pared to find so large a force of the
enemy, and the Japanese strategy was
shown in concealing the strength of
their force and in being able to throw a

flanking force against the Russians in
an unexpected position. As a result of
this latter movement, the capture of
Stakelberg's entire force was threatened.
The Japanese took a long step
towards Port Arthur on May 25th and
26th, when they fought and won a ter-
rific battle at Kin-Chau and drove the
Russians from their strong defences on
Nanshan Hill. This is the narrowest
part of the Liao-Tung peninsula, and
the Russians had selected it as the loca-
tion of their first barrier in the defense
of Port Arthur. The strategical advan-
tages offered by nature were in com-
mand of Russians, and these had been
augmented in every way possible. En-
trenchments, heavy guns, mines, miles
of tangled barbed wire, were all in use,
yet in spite of all these, the Japanese
were victors.

Lasted Sixteen Hours.

The fight lasted sixteen hours on the
26th. It was from no lack of valor or
vigorous resistance on the part of the
Russian troops that this was the case.
The Japanese troops, utterly regardless
of life, fraught with desperation in their
assaults, only so that they attained the
desired object. The storming of Nan-
shan Hill was described as particularly
thrilling and dramatic. Of course this
method of attack called for heavy losses
on the Japanese side. The victory
opened up Dalny, on the shore of
Talienwan Bay to the Japanese. The
Russians had made hasty departure from
this city, and though they had de-
stroyed many of the docks and ware-
houses there was much property of
value found in the city. It made com-
plete and more secure the close invest-
ment of Port Arthur from the land side.

WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN.

441

The Russian Port Arthur fleet made
a sortie from the harbor on June 23rci.
The Japanese claim that they sunk a
battleship and severely damaged a
battleship and a cruiser. The sortie
was a surprise, and while it ended in a
Japanese success it was success over an
enemy supposed to have been already
rendered useless. The fact that the
Russians were able to send out a fleet
of six battleships and five cruisers,
showed that the harbor was not seri-
ously blocked and that the Port Arthur
fleet still had to be reckoned with as a
force of no mean quality. The asser-
tion that the ships heretofore damaged
had been fully repaired had been
scouted, but their appearance out of the
harbor was proof not to be denied.
The Russian squadron succeeded in
running the blockade and made excur-
sions to sea. Four battleships, gun-
boats, and torpedo boats were kept in
the harbor, while two battleships, five
cruisers and torpedo boats make excur-
sions to sea. One torpedo boat suc-
ceeded in making three trips to Yin-
Kow. A number of junks loaded with
fresh provisions succeeded in passing the
Japanese blockading fleet, one junk
landing five thousand sacks of flour. A
cargo of coal was landed.

Bloodiest Engagement.

The most important engagement of
the month, and the bloodiest of the
war, was fought at Vafangow on
June i6th, when the Japanese won
a decided victory. The Russian loss
exceeded 6,000. The purpose of the
Russians was to force the Pitsewo —
Polan Tien line, which forms the north-
ern gate of the peninsula. The
Russian fighting line consisted of

twenty-five battalions of infantry and
seventeen squadrons of cavalry with
ninety-eight guns. Additions arrived
later. A general advance was made,
scaling the precipitous scarps and push-
ing back the Japanese to Tafangshin.

The latter, however, were reinforced
by the arrival of new troops and this
strengthening of their lines, supple-
mented by timely movements of the
cavalry, threatened the Russian left and
rear and restored Japanese initiative so
that the entire Japanese line gained
ground simultaneously. At three o'clock
in the afternoon the Russians begfan a
retreat, which the Japanese withering
fire converted into a rout, although the
ground did not favor pursuit.

Russian Losses.

In another engagement on June 27th
the Japanese routed 10,000 Russians,
after severe fighting, at Fen-Shui Pass,
twenty-five miles from Hai-Cheng. The
position was an exeedingly strong one
and dominated Shimn-Cheng road. In
this engagement the Russian losses
were again heavier than those of the
Japanese. The Russians before retreat-
ing burned their warehouses at Slian-
Tasu. Two days later the Japanese
forced the passage of the Mo-Tien Pass,
fifty miles southeast of Liao-Yung,
their object being to cut the Russian
communication northward of Liao-
Yung, while Kuropatkin was operating
in the vicinity of Hai-Cheng with prac-
tically all of the Russian forces.

A big battle was fought on land near
Port Arthur on June 26th and 27tli.
The Japanese were successful and on
the morning of the 28th occupied cer-
tain heights within ten miles of Port
Arthur. The two divisions which at-

442

WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN.

tacked Port Arthur were composed of
40,000 men and an independent artillery
corps. As a matter of precaution the
Japanese landed a division of 10,000
men on one of the Elliott group of
islands, and on June 28th they landed
the Sixth Division of 20,000 at Kerr
Bay.

The Elliott islands are about ten
miles southeast of Pitsewo and about
sixty-five miles northeast of Port Ar-
thur, while Kerr Bay is about thirty-six
miles from Port Arthur and six miles
from Kin-Chou. These two divisions
could be used to reinforce General Oku's
army near Kai-Ping, on the west side of
the lyiao-Tung peninsula and about forty
miles south of Niu-Chwang, or the
army of General Nogi before Port
Arthur.

Attack on the Ships.

It was February 9th that Japan made
its sudden and successful attack on the
Russian ships at Port Arthur. During
the six months following there was
fighting, cruising, and watching, and
the Japanese have gradually but surely
reduced the fighting strength of the
Russians. Japan had controlled the.
Yellow and Japan seas, in the main, but
in spite of all her successes there re-
mained in the Port Arthur harbor a
formidable fleet which had to be reck-
oned with in Qny movement which the
Japanese ships desired to make. There
was also the Vladivostok squadron
which had shown itself an effective and
active force.

Repeated efforts had been made to
"bottle up" the Port Arthur ships so
as to avoid the necessity of constant
vigilance and preparation at the har-
bor's mouth, and so, also, that these

valuable engines of destruction would
either have to be destroyed by the Rus-
sians or would fall into the hands
of the Japanese when the confi-
dently expected fall of Port Arthur
from the land attacks should occur;
but these efforts had been unsuccessful,
and Japan was not, therefore, the undis-
puted master of those Eastern waters.
On August loth she practically per-
fected her title to that distinction.

Desperate Move.

On that day the Port Arthur fleet
made a desperate effort to break through
the Japanese cordon, with the purpose
of reaching Vladivostok. It was almost
a necessary move to take, as the con-
stantly advancing land forces of the
Japanese had reached points where they
were able with their guns to make the
harbor untenable. Six battleships, four
cruisers, eight torpedo boats comprised
the fleet that came out. Altogether of
battleships, cruisers, and torpedo boats,
largely the latter in number, there were
forty-seven Japanese craft to give them
battle.

The Japanese let them get well out of
the harbor and to the southward before
attacking. Then they closed in and
there was a fierce battle from ten o'clock
in the morning until and into the night,
with but brief interruption. The re-
sult was most disastrous for the Rus-
sians.

On the 14th Admiral Kamimura's
squadron of four cruisers, sailing south
from the Korean coast, keeping watch
for any of the Port Arthur fleet which
might attempt to pass through the Ko-
rean Strait in an eff'ort to reach
Vladivostok, for any of the Vladivostok
squadron which might endeavor to join

WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN.

443

the Port Arthur forces, sighted three
of the enemy's cruisers. They proved
to be the Rossia, Gromoboi, and Rurik,
from Vladivostok.

There was a long running fight, the
Russians endeavoring to escape back to
the northward, which resulted in the
sinkingof the Rurik. The men on the
Rurik fought desperately up to the
very sinking of the vessel, and the
other two, more speedy boats, did all
that could be expected to save their
weaker companion, but finally sailed
away and reached Vladivostok with
many marks of battle. Immediately
after the sinking of the Rurik the Jap-
anese boats, with many small craft
which had arrived on the scene, turned
into a life-saving crew, and six hun-
dred Russians were rescued from the
water.

Bold Naval Dash.

On July 20th the Vladivostok squad-
ron passed through the Tsugarn Strait,
north of the main island of Japan, and
struck southward into the Pacific ocean,
along the eastern coast of Japan and
below Yokohama, and into the main
road of Japanese commerce from the
east. It was a bold dash, of a thousand
miles from its base, with the chances
of running across an enemy's fleet. But
the Japanese cruisers were not drawn to
the east of the islands, and the squadron
returned safely after nine days. In this
time they captured many trading ships
and held up the entire commerce of the
eastern coasts.

To avoid a final assault on Port Ar-
thur, the Japanese made proposals of
surrender to General Stoessel, the com-
mandant, allowing the troops to go north
and join the forces of General Kuropatkin,

but demanding the ships in the harbor.
The proffer was indignantly refused.
An offer to allow the non-combatants in
the city to come out was also made.
And this was rejected, possibly because
there were really none or very few
of that class remaining. There were
nearly or quite 100,000 Japanese troops
investing the place, with not more than
one-seventh of that number of defenders.
A number of regiments were detached
from the northern armies to add to the
besiegers ; and no matter what the cost
might be, the Japanese were determined
to have Port Arthur.

Great Battle.

The great battle of the war — that
to which events pointed and towards
which the armies for months was march-
ing and maneuvering — was fought.
I/iao-Yung was added to the list of the
world's great battles. Estimated by the
number of soldiers engaged and by the
length of the contest, the battle of Liao-
Yung must be called one of the greatest
battles in history. The best accounts
give a total on both sides of over 400,»-
000. In but few instances in modern
history has this number been equalled.

After a defeat on August 2d, at Hai-
Ching, the Russians retreated north-
ward, and occupied the fortifications
about lyiao-Yung. This is an important
town about fifty miles north of Hai-
Ching, thirty miles south of Mukden,
and on the line of the railroad from
Harbin to Port Arthur. Great labor
had been expended on the fortifications
about the town, and they were thought
to be impregnable. The lines ran in a
semi-circle along the ridges from eight
to ten miles east and south of the town.
Galleries protected the artillerymen and

444

WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN.

wire fences and mines were disposed to
repel infantry attacks. All parts of the
work were connected by telephone, and
the forts were considered to be marvels
of engineering skill.

On such a field, so prepared. General
Kuropatkin decided to halt and face his
Japanese pursuers, and it might easily
be thought that his many retreats had
been, as sometimes intimated, merely
for the purpose of "luring on" the
enemy to a field of his own choice for a
defeat which should be crushing.

Heavy Fighting.

On August 24th a general advance
along the entire Japanese line was
begun, and during August 25 and 26
the fighting was heavy and continuous.
Kuroki, whose first operations were di-
rected at Liao-Dian-Sien, about twenty
miles southeast of Liao-Yung, was suc-
cessful in turning the Russian left and
driving them from Anping, inflicting
heavy losses. An-Shan-Shan, their
strongest position on the south was
evacuated under heavy pressure from
Oku, and though Nodzu had not main-
tained his position, the effect of the two
days' fighting was to force the Russians
back into the main defences about Liao-
Yung.

As soon as possible the Japanese fol-
lowed up their successes and by August
30 were in position to attack the new
Russian line. Artillery had been brought
up and the bombardment lasted from
dawn till dark. This feature is described
as being awful in its continual thunder
and reverberations. Probably 1300 guns
were engaged on both sides, and the
firing was constant. There were fierce
hand to hand fights also, the Russians
repelling all attacks, and both sides

suffering heavy losses. While the two
other armies engaged the front Kuroki
executed a flanking movement and
threw his army across the Tai-tse river,
some twenty miles east of Liao-Yung.

This necessitated Kuropatkin taking
a part of his army to the north side of
the Tai-tse river, and sending it to
meet and, if possible, crush Kuroki's
brilliant flank movement. Kuropatkin's
l^lans are said to have been excellent in
this direction, his intention being to cut
off Kuroki from the balance of the Jap-
ance army, before they should discover
his predicament and be able to help
him. The Japanese, however, had a
larger army across the river than was
supposed, and they had advanced fur-
ther to the north.

A General Wounded.

Fierce fighting took place September
I and 2d, near the Yentai mines, but
the superior force of the Japanese was
victorious over the Russians under Gen-
eral Orloflf, an army fresh from Europe.
Orloff was wounded and some regiments
lost over half their men. These opera-
tions and the danger of the Japanese
reaching the railroad and cutting off his
communications with Mukden, com-
pelled Kuropatkin to evacuate Liao-
Yung. This was accomplished in good
order, while a strong rear guard held
the city fortifications. A double track
railroad and two good roads afforded
mediums for the retreat to Mukden.

The Japanese occupied Liao-Yung on
the evening of September 4th. They
found a quantity of stores, though most
of the supplies had been carried away,
and many had been destroyed. In the
crossing of the river. General Stakel-
berg was left with 25,000 Russian sol-

WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN.

445

diers upon the south bank and to the
east of Iviao-Yung. For a day or two it
was thought he was cut off and liable
to capture. Instead, he extricated him-
self and aided in defeating Kuroki at
Yentai. The Japanese to the east of
the railroad made frequent attacks on
the Russian rear guard, and it was con-
stantly rumored that the Russians would
be cut off from Mukden. But on Sep-
tember 7th, Kuropatkin reported that
his entire army had reached that city,
without the loss of guns or supplies.
Next to a victory, a successful retreat is
considered to show good generalship,
and it is acknowledged that Kuropat-
kin's retreat was masterly.

Results of the Battle.

The great battle on the Sahke river,
which began October 9th by the ad-
vance of General Kuropatkin, while in a
sense a defeat for the Russians, the fact
that they were enabled to prevent Mar-
shal Oyama from reaping the full fruits
of his victory, by safely withdrawing
their shattered left wing and removing
30,000 wounded from the field, made it
somewhat of a drawn battle. Both
armies strengthened their positions and
filled up their ranks with fresh troops.
The Japanese had over 60,000 reinforce-
ments. The Japanese threw up exten-
sive intrenchments, in some cases pre-
paring two lines of these.

The two armies were, in some portions
of their line, so close together that the
same small village would be occupied by
both, and the same spring furnish water
for the opposing outposts. There were
some heavy artillery duels and some
brisk fights among advance posts, but
no general engagement. Lone Tree
Hill, which appeared as an important

point in the Sahke battleground, and
had been in the hands of both armies,
remained with the Russians, giving
them a great advantage in that locality.
On November lOth the Japanese as-
sumed the offensive on the left bank of
the Hun, but were driven back to their
original lines. On the nth they made
a vigorous artillery attack, but made no
advance.

The Russian front extended over a dis-
tance of eighty miles, and they were
confident their army was so disposed as
to prevent a disaster of any magnitude.
On October 2Sth an imperial ukase was
issued making General Kuropatkin
commander-in-chief of the army in
Manchuria. Alexeieff was retained as
Viceroy, but was immediately ordered
to St. Petersburg.

Heavy Losses.

The loss of the Russians during the
operations October 9th to 21st, were
given as 800 officers and .:^ 5,000 men,
killed, wounded and missing. This
was a statement of the Russian General
Staff". The Japanese estimated the total
casualties of the Russians as 60,000.
They claimed to have found 13^ S3 3
dead in various parts of the field. They
took 709 prisoners, and a great quantity
of arms and munitions.

The greatest interest centered around
Port Arthur, which was repeatedly re-
ported as on the point of falling. After
a period of comparative quiet and prep-
aration, an assault was commenced on
October 24th which developed into a
fierce battle on the 30th. On that day
the Japanese made an attack on the
eastern ridge, and gained the moats of
the principal forts assailed. The as-
sault, however, was a failure as the

446

WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN.

Russians were enabled to drive them
back from the hill. The Japanese how-
ever, drew nearer to the center of the
Russian position by means of mines.

The Russian Baltic fleet at last
started on its long journey to the Far
East, having left Libau on October i6th.
The fleet consisted of seven battleships,
six large cruisers, eight torpedo boat
destroyers and several transports, the
total being more than thirty ships. It
was this formidable craft that attacked
the British fishing boats in the North
Sea, which for a time threatened serious
consequences. The fleet left Vigo,
Spain, on November 1st, continuing its
journey toward the Orient, a part going
by way of the Suez canal and the re-
mainder around the Cape of Good Hope.
On November i6th the second division
of the Baltic fleet, consisting of four
cruisers, two auxiliary cruisers, and five
torpedo boat destroyers, left Libau for
the same destination.

Fierce Assaults.

General Nogi was ordered to renew
his attacks on Port Arthur during the
last week in November, and to capture
the main fortifications at any cost. As-
saults with this object in view were
made on the 2ist and 26th, but they were
unsuccessful, and announcement was
made from Japanese headquarters to
that effect. On the 27th, the Japanese
gained a notable advantage in the cap-
ture of 203-Meter Hill. This was one
of the high points from which the guns
could reach the town and harbor. The
struggle for this hill was one of the
most desperate of the war on both sides.
It began shortly after noon of the 27th.
After heavy and concentrated bombard-
ment, four charges were made between

three and four o'clock. The last one
was successful in dislodging the defend-
ers, but during the night the Russians
made three counter attacks and drove
out the Japanese forces.

At daylight next morning the Japan-
ese returned to the attack, and at eight
P. M- that night, after a series of rushes
and counter-rushes, advances and re-
pulses, the Japanese again occupied the
fortress. It was not until noon of De-
cember I that the Russians finally gave
up their attacks on this hill and retired
to inner positions. The losses on both
sides were extremely heavy and 01,'
December 2 the first armistice between
the armies at Port Arthur was arranged
for the burial of the dead and the re-
moval of the wounded. It lasted from
ten in the morning until four in the
afternoon.

Warships Bombarded.

While great importance was attached
to the capture of 203-Meter Hill (called
Visokaia by the Russians), it was one of
the outer line of defences, and the inner
line, with the strong permanent forts,
was still in possession of the defenders.
Golden Hill and Lianio Hill are higher
also. The possession of 203-Meter Hill
was used to great advantage by the Jap-
anese. Heavy naval guns were mount-
ed there, and from the 3d to the 9th
a heavy bombardment of the warships
in the harbor was kept up. Previously
the boats had found shelter from the
Japanese fire behind Pei-ya mountain.

This they were now unable to do, and
by the i2th the Japanese commander
reported that there was no further need
of bombarding the harbor, as all of the
ships there were completely disabled.
This was supposed to include four war-

WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND JAPAN,

447

ships, two cruisers, one gunboat and
one torpedo storeship. The battleship
Sevastapol was moved into the outer
harbor, and was made the target for
many and desperate night and day at-
tacks by the torpedo fleet outside. It
was not sunk, but was considered prac-
tically useless.

Occasional news came of the progress
of the two divisions of the Russian fleet
proceeding to the East. The Suez canal
section passed through the Red Sea, and
that going by way of Cape of Good
Hope was well down the African coast.
It is noticeable that the ships stopped
only at French ports to coal.

Downfall of Port Arthur.

"Great sovereign, pardon us. We
have done all that is within human
power. Judge us with clemency."
These were th^ closing words of the
dispatch in which General Stoessel, the
commander of Port Arthur, announced
the surrender of that fortress. It sounds
more like a suppliant criminal making
a plea for his life than a great general
who bravely bore his part in announc-
ing the disastrous but inevitable end of
his long and heroic struggle.

" Port Arthur has fallen." This mes-
sage so long anticipated was the first
important a. mouncement which the New
Year had to make to the world. After
a defence exceeded in length but by
few in the history of war, the much-
vaunted "Gibraltar of the East "—
deemed almost impregnable — fell before
the persistent, determined, bold and
skillful attacks of the Japanese.

This was the second time Japan has
captured Port Arthur, but the task,
ten years before, when the Chinese held
the illy-prepared forts, was but child's

play and a summer pastime compared
with the struggle now ended. Since
the fortress has been isolated by both
land and sea, its fall was looked upon
as a foregone conclusion by the out-
side world. There was no probability
of outside succor.

The Surrender.

The many details attending the sur-
render were carried out without appar-
rent friction. Japanese troops entered
the city on the 4th, and on the 5th the
opposing commanders met at the only
undamaged house remaining in the
neighboring village of Shuishi, and this
a miserable hovel. Each recognized in
the other a brave man and a good sol-
dier, and the exchange of courtesies was
more than cordial, even if solemn. On
the 13th, there was a triumphal entry
into the city, participated in by detach-
ments from all the regiments. The
line was five miles long, and was re-
viewed by General Nogi.

What emotions must have filled every
brown breast, as they marched peace-
fully and victorious by the forts which
so lately had offered them only a deadly
welcome. Conditions in the besieged
town were evidently much better than
vagrant reports had led the world to be-
lieve. The old or Chinese town had
suffered badly from the bombardment,
but the new Russian town had largely
escaped. There was no evidence of starv-
ation among the inhabitants. That the
defence was exhausted was by no means
apparent. Some kinds of ammunition
were low, but there was food sufficient
for two months. Fifteen hundred horses
were among the captured spoils. About
half of the oflScers accepted parol.
General Stoessel among them.